Water scarcity has become a structural constraint for sustainable development in arid and semi-arid regions. In North Africa, declining renewable water availability, recurrent droughts, population growth and agricultural demand have pushed conventional water resources beyond their renewal capacity. As a result, seawater desalination has evolved from an emergency response to a strategic infrastructure for national water security.
However, the rapid expansion of desalination systems has revealed systemic challenges extending beyond water production. Energy consumption, membrane fouling, chemical use, brine discharge and environmental impacts increasingly determine the sustainability and social acceptability of desalination. At the same time, desalination brine—traditionally considered a waste stream—is now recognized as a potential resource within circular economy frameworks, particularly in the context of growing demand for strategic materials such as lithium.
This convergence of water security, energy transition, advanced materials and digitalization marks a paradigm shift: desalination plants are no longer mono-output facilities but multi-functional platforms at the intersection of water, energy and material systems.
Problem Statement
In arid and semi-arid regions, desalination has transitioned from a supplementary water source to a structural pillar of water security. In the Maghreb, large-scale seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) systems increasingly supply urban populations, while raising new challenges related to energy demand, membrane durability, brine management and environmental sustainability. This article presents an integrated scientific analysis of desalination systems, focusing on
- hybrid renewable–grid energy configurations,
- emerging graphene-oxide-enhanced thin-film composite (GO-TFC) membranes,
- artificial intelligence (AI) and IoT-based predictive operation, and
- brine valorization pathways, including direct lithium extraction (DLE).
The study highlights that sustainable desalination cannot rely on single technological solutions but requires system-level integration combining advanced materials, digital control, circular economy principles and reinforced regulatory frameworks.
Desalination Development and Governance in the Maghreb
Algeria: Desalination as a Backbone of Potable Water Supply
Algeria currently operates 19 large SWRO plants, with a total installed capacity of approximately 3.7 million m³/day. Strategic projections indicate that desalinated seawater will supply ≈40% of potable water demand by the end of 2025, increasing to ≈60% by 2030. Desalination is strictly reserved for drinking water, while irrigation relies on dams, groundwater and treated wastewater.
This model prioritizes social equity and urban resilience but increases dependency on energy supply reliability and long-term membrane performance.
Morocco: Integrated Desalination within the Water–Energy–Food Nexus
Morocco operates 16 desalination plants with a total capacity of ~750,000 m³/day, with plans to reach ~1.7 billion m³/year. Morocco is the only Maghreb country implementing desalination-based irrigation at scale, notably in the Chtouka–Aït Baha region, where ~125,000 m³/day irrigate ~15,000 ha of high-value export crops (tomatoes, strawberries, cherries). This selective integration is economically viable only under high productivity and export-oriented conditions.
Energy Integration: Why 100% Solar Desalination is not Feasible
Although renewable energy is essential for decarbonizing desalination, 100% solar-powered desalination is not technically feasible at large scale due to solar intermittency and the continuous energy demand of RO systems. Stable pressure and uninterrupted operation are required to avoid membrane damage and excessive fouling.
Sustainable configurations rely on hybrid energy systems, including:
- solar energy coupled to the electrical grid,
- solar energy combined with battery storage,
- hybrid solar–wind systems with grid backup.
These architectures significantly reduce carbon intensity while ensuring operational reliability. Renewable energy thus acts as a decarbonization lever, not a standalone energy source for desalination [1–3].
Advanced Membrane Materials: Graphene-Oxide-Enhanced TFC Membranes
GO-TFC Membrane Design
Recent advances in membrane science have demonstrated that thin-film composite (TFC) membranes incorporating graphene oxide (GO) into the polyamide (PA) active layer offer substantial performance improvements. GO produced by chemical exfoliation is fractionated to control nanosheet size and dispersed in an aqueous m-phenylenediamine (MPD) solution prior to interfacial polymerization.
Performance and Mechanisms
GO-TFC membranes exhibit:
- ≈80% increase in water permeability,
- ≈98% reduction in biofouling (biovolume-based),
- high salt rejection maintained after 48,000 ppm·h chlorination exposure.
These enhancements result from increased hydrophilicity, modified surface charge, reduced roughness and optimized PA layer thickness. GO size and concentration are critical parameters controlling membrane performance [4–6].
Artificial Intelligence and IoT for Predictive Desalination
AI-Based Fouling Prevention
AI models integrating pressure drop, normalized permeate flux, salt passage and feedwater quality can anticipate fouling and scaling events, enabling proactive adjustment of pretreatment and operating conditions.
IoT Sensors and Energy Optimization
IoT sensor networks enable real-time detection of energy leaks, pump inefficiencies and abnormal pressure losses. Coupled with AI-driven predictive maintenance, these systems can reduce specific energy consumption by up to 20%, while extending membrane lifespan and minimizing unplanned shutdowns [7–9].
Brine Management, Valorization and Direct Lithium Extraction
Regulatory and Environmental Challenges
Brine discharge can alter marine salinity, temperature and oxygen levels. Strengthened legislative frameworks are required to define quantitative discharge standards and enforce cumulative impact assessments.
Brine Valorization and Circular Economy
Desalination brine contains recoverable salts (NaCl, Mg, Ca, gypsum) and trace elements. Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) technologies—adsorption, ion exchange, membrane-based and electrochemical processes—enable lithium recovery with reduced land use and water losses compared to evaporation ponds [10–12].
Integrating brine valorization into desalination plants transforms an environmental liability into a strategic resource, aligning desalination with circular economy principles.
System-Level Perspective
The convergence of hybrid energy systems, GO-TFC membranes, AI-IoT digitalization and brine valorization positions desalination plants as intelligent, adaptive infrastructures, capable of delivering water security while supporting energy transition and material recovery.
Conclusion
Desalination has entered a new phase where sustainability depends not on isolated technological improvements, but on system-level integration. Hybrid energy supply, advanced membranes, digital control and circular economy strategies collectively define the future of desalination in water-stressed regions.
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