Jordan, characterized by its arid desert climate, is among the most water-scarce countries in the world. The nation’s renewable water resources amount to less than 100 m³ per capita annually—far below the water scarcity threshold. Overexploitation of groundwater, climate change, and rapid population growth have triggered an acute water crisis, leading to soil degradation, desertification, rising water costs, economic constraints, biodiversity loss, and public health challenges. Jordan primarily relies on surface water from rivers, groundwater, rainwater harvesting, and treated wastewater for reuse, while planning seawater desalination at Aqaba.
To address the escalating water shortage, a long-term strategy integrating cloud seeding, desalination, rainwater harvesting, and wastewater treatment and water reuse is essential. These technologies collectively offer resilience against water scarcity in a country with extremely limited resources.
Water Crisis in Jordan
Jordan ranks among the most water-stressed nations globally. Overdrafting of aquifers, urbanization, and refugee influxes have intensified pressure on water resources. Extreme water scarcity is defined as less than 500 m³ per person per year. In 1946, water availability was approximately 3,600 m³ per person annually, but this figure has plummeted to less than 100 m³ by 2017.
Prolonged droughts during the 1970s increased evaporation and exacerbated irregular rainfall patterns. Climate change has further reduced precipitation and raised temperatures, increasing volatility in water supply. Precipitation has declined by about 20% over recent decades, and 92% of Jordan’s land area receives less than 200 mm of rainfall annually. Evaporation accounts for roughly 88–93% of total precipitation, while infiltration remains minimal.
Groundwater levels in aquifers are dropping by up to two meters annually due to overexploitation. Additional losses occur through leakage in distribution systems, where cracks in main pipelines and faulty connections cause significant water loss. Studies indicate that only 30–50% of produced water reaches households due to leakage.
Population growth, improved living standards, and economic development have increased water consumption, thereby generating more wastewater. Wastewater is highly concentrated due to low per-household water use, making it rich in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. However, high salinity can negatively affect soil fertility and crop production.
Climate projections for 2100 suggest temperature increases of 2.1–4 °C and precipitation declines of 15–35%, impacting agriculture, marine ecosystems, and multiple sectors. Globally, forecasts indicate that water scarcity will affect 40% of the world’s population by 2030.
In 2019, 54.4% of Jordan’s water consumption came from groundwater, 30.8% from surface water, 14.5% from treated wastewater, and only 0.3% from desalinated seawater. Additionally, about 26% of water resources are shared with neighboring countries through transboundary basins governed by agreements. The Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers flow through Israel and Syria, making access uncertain.
Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
Jordan has long invested in wastewater reuse, particularly for agricultural irrigation. The country operates 32 treatment plants that process wastewater for irrigation purposes. Many plants meet basic standards for Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), but microbial quality and salinity remain challenges. Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) technology offers high water quality and requires less space, though it demands higher energy and poses risks of membrane fouling.
In 2008, treatment plants were overloaded, resulting in poor quality. Conditions improved by 2018 with the establishment of new facilities and expanded connections, reducing load to 68% of design capacity and improving outcomes. Today, approximately 75% of treated water meets national irrigation standards.
Desalination of Seawater and Brackish Water
The most common desalination method is Sea Water Reverse Osmosis (SWRO), combined with energy recovery systems to reduce costs. Seawater desalination at Aqaba is a cornerstone of Jordan’s long-term strategy. The National Carrier Project in Aqaba is expected to deliver about 300 million m³ of desalinated seawater annually to Amman, powered by solar energy.
Environmental challenges include brine disposal, which can harm coral reefs and coastal ecosystems. Mitigation measures include high recovery rates, blending with cooling water, and advanced discharge designs.
مشاريع المياه تعتبر من المشاريع المكلفة
Brackish water desalination from 50 BWRO plants in the Jordan Valley produces about 7.7 million m³ annually for agricultural use. The cost of brackish water desalination ranges from $0.33–$0.48 per cubic meter, significantly lower than seawater desalination at $0.50–$0.70 per cubic meter.
Cloud Seeding Technology
In 2016, Jordan successfully conducted cloud seeding experiments using ionization technology, which increased rainfall during the project period. The technique involves dispersing small particles of silver iodide or dry ice into clouds to stimulate condensation. The United Arab Emirates has established an extensive research program—the UAE Research Program for Rain Enhancement Science (UAEREP)—to advance this technology.
Cloud seeding is theoretically cost-effective, with estimated costs of $0.01–$0.04 per cubic meter of harvestable rain, according to UAE studies. However, its effectiveness varies significantly with cloud conditions and requires advanced radar monitoring.
Future Strategies
Jordan faces an impending water crisis. Precipitation scenarios for 2080 predict declines of 10–28% depending on region, alongside increased evaporation and temperature rises of up to 4.5 °C. Extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfall, may cause flooding and increased water salinity, further reducing flows in the Jordan River.
Long-term strategic investments are essential to secure water for domestic, industrial, and agricultural needs. Despite high initial costs, these investments are economically viable in the long run. A combined approach—solar-powered desalination for drinking water, leakage control to reduce water losses, rainwater harvesting, reuse of treated wastewater for agriculture and industry, and cloud seeding as a complementary measure—is critical to building resilience against water scarcity.
References
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Almansoori, H., & Badran, A. (2020). Cloud seeding in the UAE research paper. (PDF) Cloud Seeding In The UAE Research Paper
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