International environmental law on biodiversity conservation has undergone a remarkable transformation, evolving from a fragmented approach focused on a few commercially important species to a comprehensive, holistic framework. This evolution reflects a growing global awareness of the interconnectedness of ecosystems and the profound threat posed by biodiversity loss. This article traces the key milestones in this journey, from early species-specific regulations to the ambitious goals set for 2025.
Early Species-Specific Regulations and Frameworks (1940s–1980s)
The initial efforts in international biodiversity law were reactive, primarily aiming to manage the exploitation of economically valuable species. The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (1946) established the International Whaling Commission (IWC) to oversee whale stocks. While its original mandate was to regulate the whaling industry, its focus gradually shifted towards conservation, culminating in the 1986 moratorium on commercial whaling—a pivotal moment that demonstrated the potential for international cooperation to protect a species from extinction.
A significant step toward a more comprehensive approach was the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which came into force in 1975. By regulating the international trade of over 38,000 species, CITES provided a crucial mechanism to prevent over-exploitation. The regular meetings of the Conference of the Parties (COP) under CITES have been instrumental in updating and enforcing these protections.
The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, was adopted in 1979. This framework was designed to protect migratory species across their entire range, leading to various regional and species-specific agreements. These early conventions laid the groundwork by creating an institutional framework and a precedent for international legal cooperation.
The Rio Earth Summit and the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
The 1992 Rio Earth Summit marked a watershed moment. It shifted the global conversation from resource management to the comprehensive conservation of biodiversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a legally binding agreement, was the flagship outcome. Its three core objectives were revolutionary: the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
The CBD’s governing body, the Conference of the Parties (COP), became the primary forum for advancing these goals. Significant meetings, such as those in Nagoya (COP 10, 2010), Pyeongchang (COP 12, 2014), and Cancún (COP 13, 2016), led to the adoption of strategic plans and protocols that aimed to integrate biodiversity into broader policy areas.
Post-Rio Developments and Frameworks (1990s–2010s)
Following the Rio Summit, international environmental law became increasingly interconnected. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000), a supplementary agreement to the CBD, was created to regulate the transboundary movement of genetically modified organisms. This reflected a growing concern over the potential risks of new technologies to biodiversity.
Furthermore, climate agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement began to acknowledge the critical link between climate change and biodiversity loss. The Paris Agreement’s emphasis on nature-based solutions signaled a move toward a more integrated approach, recognizing that healthy ecosystems are essential for both climate mitigation and adaptation.
Global Goals and Biodiversity: From MDGs to SDGs
The turn of the millennium saw the introduction of global development goals that increasingly recognized the central role of biodiversity.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (2000–2015)
The MDGs, a set of eight global goals focused mainly on developing countries, included an environmental component. Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability, directly addressed biodiversity loss with a target to achieve “a significant reduction in the rate of loss” by 2010. Beyond this direct target, biodiversity was also recognized as critical for achieving other MDGs, such as those related to poverty and hunger, as rural populations often depend directly on biological resources for their livelihoods.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2015–2030)
Building on the MDGs, the 17 SDGs are a more comprehensive and universal set of goals applying to all countries. The SDGs place a much stronger emphasis on environmental protection, with several goals directly related to biodiversity:
- SDG 14: Life Below Water: Focuses on conserving and sustainably using oceans, seas, and marine resources. Its targets include reducing marine pollution, regulating fishing, and increasing protected marine areas. A landmark UN treaty to safeguard marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction cleared its ratification threshold in September 2025, entering into force in January 2026.
- SDG 15: Life on Land: Aims to protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, and halt biodiversity loss. Targets address combating desertification, protecting mountain ecosystems, and ending poaching.
Shift Towards Holistic Action and Ambitious Targets (2020–2025)
The most recent period has seen an urgent, concerted effort to halt the rapid rate of nature loss. The culmination of this was the adoption of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) at COP 15 in 2022. The GBF is a strategic plan designed to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030. It sets ambitious, time-bound targets, including the “30 by 30” initiative to conserve 30% of global land and sea areas.
The GBF also emphasizes the need for an integrated approach, linking climate action with biodiversity conservation. The increasing recognition of biodiversity loss as a global crisis has led to widespread calls for increased funding and more decisive action. This momentum is highlighted by the 2025 World Wildlife Day theme and the scheduled CITES COP 20 in Uzbekistan, which is expected to reinforce and expand species protection measures.
In a landmark step, the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement, also known as the “High Seas Treaty,” was adopted by UN Member States in 2023. This legally binding instrument, the third implementation agreement under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), addresses the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. It aims to fill the governance gap in the vast, largely unregulated high seas by establishing marine protected areas, mandating environmental impact assessments, and providing a framework for the fair sharing of marine genetic resources and technology transfer. The agreement, which India has approved, will enter into force on January 17, 2026, after clearing its 60th ratification threshold.
Conclusion
The evolution of international environmental law on biodiversity conservation is a testament to the world’s increasing recognition of its responsibility to the natural world. While challenges persist, the shift from species-specific management to integrated, holistic frameworks like the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and the SDGs represents a profound change. The focus on ambitious targets, integrated climate-nature action, and greater accountability signifies a new era of legal and political commitment to safeguarding our planet’s rich and irreplaceable biodiversity.
References
- International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (1946)
- Signed: December 2, 1946, Washington, D.C.
- Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
- Signed: March 3, 1973, Washington, D.C.
- Entered into Force: July 1, 1975
- Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
- Adopted: June 23, 1979
- Entered into Force: November 1, 1983
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
- Signed: June 5, 1992, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Entered into Force: December 29, 1993
- Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
- Adopted: 2000
- Entered into Force: 2003
- Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing
- Adopted: October 2010, Nagoya, Japan
- Entered into Force: October 12, 2014
- Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
- Adopted: 2002, UN General Assembly
- Timeline: 2000–2015
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
- Adopted: 2015, UN
- Timeline: 2015–2030
- Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF)
- Adopted: December 19, 2022, at the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP15) to the CBD
- Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement
- Adopted: June 2023
- Ratification: Cleared 60 country ratifications on September 19, 2025
- Entered into Force: January 17, 2026
