Nature‑based solutions (NBS) have emerged as a critical strategy for sustainable water resource management, especially in arid and semi‑arid regions where water scarcity is amplified by increasingly erratic rainfall, more frequent extreme weather events, and progressive ecosystem degradation. Algeria, which spans from the Mediterranean littoral to the vast expanses of the Sahara Desert, is endowed with a rich heritage of traditional hydraulic techniques adapted over centuries to the region’s harsh climate [1].
Long before modern hydraulic infrastructures, these techniques leveraged a deep understanding of local hydrology and integrated human settlements within the natural cycles, enabling a remarkable resilience to climatic fluctuations. Within this heritage, the foggaras of Touat, Gourara, and Tidikelt, the ghouts of Oued Souf, and the jessour and water harvesting terraces of pre‑Saharan zones represent powerful embodiments of Algerian ingenuity, combining hydraulic efficiency, climate adaptation, biodiversity protection, and cultural as well as economic value [2].
The foggaras, emblematic of Saharan oasis, illustrate one of the most advanced methods of sustainably mobilizing groundwater without external energy inputs. These consist of gently sloping underground galleries transporting groundwater from aquifer recharge zones to agricultural lands, connected to the surface by vertical wells evenly spaced along their length. This gravity-driven design allows deeply buried water to emerge without mechanical pumping, avoids over-extraction when managed well, and drastically reduces evaporation losses by keeping water underground until it reaches the fields. Importantly, foggaras operate not only on geotechnical and hydrogeological principles but also on robust communal governance: “water measurers,” whose skills are transmitted across generations, regulate water allocation, monitor flow rates, and oversee maintenance. This social‑institutional arrangement has been recognized by UNESCO as intangible cultural heritage and guarantees equitable water distribution even in times of stress [3].
Figure 1: Kasria (Water Distributor) of a Foggara System
Because of these characteristics, foggaras provide a concrete example of how nature-based solutions can enhance community resilience in the face of prolonged droughts or hydrological variability induced by climate change: they facilitate natural aquifer recharge, maintain steady water flows, and sustain oasis agriculture and social life under extreme conditions.
Yet this ancestral system faces growing threats from modern pressures. The widespread drilling of motorized boreholes, often unregulated has led to steep declines in aquifer levels, undermining the functioning of many foggaras and compromising water security for oasis communities. A detailed hydrological and socio‑environmental investigation in the region of Timimoun reveals that such overexploitation is the principal cause for the drawdown of foggaras, endangering their sustainability [4].
Despite these challenges, recent case studies show that local communities are not passive victims; rather, they demonstrate adaptive capacity through restoration efforts, reorganization of water rights, and blending traditional practices with modern techniques. In the study by Salem Idda and colleagues, for example, of the roughly 2,000 foggaras historically present in the oases of Touat, Gourara and Tidikelt, 672 remain functional as of their 2021 survey, delivering a collective perennial flow of about 1.8 m³/s. Meanwhile, the area irrigated in the traditional (foggaras‑fed) sector increased from 9,800 ha in 1980 to over 15,000 ha in 2014 [3].
These trends strongly suggest that rather than being relics frozen in time, foggaras are “living irrigation systems,” evolving in response to changing socio‑economic and environmental conditions. In some instances, communities have formally banned new boreholes in catchment areas, set up associations for collective maintenance, reallocated water shares more equitably, and mobilized collective financial contributions for rehabilitation work [3,5].
Moreover, recent technical innovations are being introduced to support foggaras’ survival under contemporary climate pressures. Studies in the Touat region (e.g. Reggane) show that using solar energy to drive water-lifting systems and combining them with water‑efficient irrigation techniques, profitable high‑value crops, and proper agronomic practices can increase cropped area, improve water savings, raise foggara flow, and significantly boost farmers’ income, improvements quantified at +50% area, +100% water saved, +500% in flow and income in some trials [6].
Such innovations reduce reliance on fossil‑fuel-based pumping, align irrigation practices with limited water availability, and integrate modern environmental engineering with traditional communal water management; a hybrid NBS‑plus‑technology approach. In this way, foggaras become not only symbols of cultural heritage but active components of climate‑adaptation strategies.
Turning to another heritage system, the ghout, typical of eastern Sahara zones demonstrates a different but complementary water‑management philosophy. Instead of tapping deep aquifers, ghouts capitalize on shallow water tables by constructing basins (bowls) where date palms are planted. The excavation, combined with vegetative barriers such as young palms and shrubs that act as windbreaks and sand stabilizers, creates a favorable microclimate in which evaporation is reduced, soils are stabilized, and humidity is maintained locally. This design significantly mitigates the harshness of Sahara desert conditions, providing a natural buffer against extreme aridity and thermal stress.
Figure 2: Aerial View of a Ghout System in the Sahara
By reducing water losses and stabilizing soils, ghouts contribute to preserving oasis ecosystems and sustaining agricultural production even under conditions of rising temperatures and increased aridity conditions projected under climate change scenarios. The maintenance of such moist, vegetated micro‑environments supports biodiversity, safeguards associated flora and fauna adapted to oasis ecosystems, and sustains vital ecosystem services such as local climate regulation, water storage, and sustainable agriculture. As such, ghouts constitute a nature-based adaptation strategy tailored to extreme environments, offering a functional alternative to energy‑intensive irrigation systems. In certain cases, ghout-like systems have been recognized by international bodies (e.g. FAO) among Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS), reinforcing their value as integrated socio‑ecological systems.
In pre‑Saharan zones, traditional water‑harvesting structures such as jessour (earthen or stone walls built across slopes) and terraced fields further enrich the palette of ancestral NBS. These structures capture and slow down runoff from episodic rains, retain fertile sediment, promote infiltration, reduce soil erosion, and help recharge superficial aquifers. In a climate where precipitation events are unpredictable but increasingly intense, such systems provide a low‑cost, ecologically appropriate, and socially embedded response for water conservation, soil protection, and agricultural resilience. Their adaptability, reliance on local materials, and alignment with community practices make them especially valuable under changing climatic conditions, offering rural populations tools for food security, water management, and risk reduction.
The benefits of deploying and maintaining these traditional nature-based solutions are multiple and synergistic. First, they contribute to regulating microclimates: shading, vegetation, and soil moisture help mitigate heat stress, reduce evaporation, and moderate desert temperatures. Second, they sustain biodiversity by preserving oasis ecosystems, endemic plants (e.g. date palms and companion crops), soil microorganisms, and wildlife adapted to these environments.
Third, they maintain agro‑ecosystems in which trees, crops, and soils interact in a balanced, regenerative manner, ensuring long-term agricultural productivity without excessive reliance on external inputs. Fourth, they support local economies: high-quality dates, fruit and vegetable crops, and perhaps agro‑products for niche markets, plus potential for eco-tourism and cultural heritage tourism centered on the ancient hydraulic systems. Fifth, they anchor social cohesion and cultural identity through the transmission of knowledge, customary water‑sharing institutions, community governance, and locally rooted agricultural practices.
Recent studies reinforce these points and quantify some benefits. In the region of Adrar (Sahara), for example, a 2023 investigation documented a foggara still in perfect condition, feeding palm groves that produce dates of exceptional quality, a living testimony of resistance against intensive groundwater drilling and unsustainable agriculture expansion [7].
In the case of the oasis of El Guerrara, research covering 1990–2019 demonstrated that ancestral floodwater management techniques, including a 1.8 km‑long dam, 10 km of seguias, and underground recharge wells, succeeded in capturing flash floods of the Zegrir River to recharge aquifers homogeneously and irrigate some 80,000 palm trees [8]. These documented examples show the capacity of traditional NBS to adapt to hydrological extremes, re‑use episodic floodwater, and maintain water security under climate stress.
Another notable development is the renewed interest in reviving and reinforcing foggaras using renewable energy and modern water‑saving irrigation methods. The 2023 sustainable‑irrigation project in Timimoun, restoring the Amghir foggara, reconnected water to 8 previously unirrigated gardens, benefited 32 farmers, and trained 22 young people in maintenance and heritage preservation [9]. Such initiatives not only safeguard cultural heritage but also reinforce local adaptive capacity, strengthen livelihoods, and provide a replicable model for other oases.
Nevertheless, the sustainability of these ancestral systems cannot be taken for granted. Several conditions must be met and supported by policy. First, modern groundwater pumping must be regulated strictly to prevent overexploitation and ensure aquifer recharge keeps pace with abstraction. Without sound regulation and monitoring, foggaras, and similar systems, will continue to degrade as has been documented in several studies reporting that many traditional galleries are drying up or abandoned [10].
Second, the transmission of technical and institutional knowledge must be supported through training, documentation, and inclusion of younger generations, especially water‑measurers, maintenance workers, and community governance actors to ensure that water‑allocation rules, maintenance practices, and customary governance endure.
Third, integration into public policy is crucial. Traditional NBS should not be sidelined in favour of large-scale hydraulic projects (dams, inter-basin transfers, or desalination) but rather recognized, financed, and supported as complementary, sustainable and low‑impact options for water security. Fourth, hybrid approaches combining ancestral techniques and modern technology such as solar‑powered pumping (when needed), sensor-based piezometric monitoring, regulated drip irrigation, participatory mapping, data-driven water‑management plans can enhance efficiency, transparency, and resilience under climate change.
The economic and social potential of restoring and valorizing these systems is significant. Legal recognition of foggaras, ghouts, jessour, and associated infrastructures as part of the national heritage and as functional water‑management systems can unlock public funding, international aid, climate adaptation financing, and incentive mechanisms for their maintenance. Cultural and eco-tourism linked to unique hydraulic heritage can provide alternative income streams, supporting livelihoods, diversifying local economies, and enhancing social resilience. At the same time, these systems contribute to combating desertification, stabilizing microclimates, safeguarding ecosystem services, and reinforcing community-based climate adaptation strategies.
A comprehensive analysis of Algeria’s traditional NBS reveals that these ancestral systems remain deeply relevant to the country’s hydrological, climatic, ecological, cultural, and socio-economic realities. Their efficiency, renewable-nature, biodiversity and ecosystem benefits, low energy footprint, cultural value, and alignment with sustainable development objectives make them exemplary models, reproducible, modernizable, and resilient.
In a context of escalating water stress, climate change impacts, and growing demand for sustainable development, rehabilitating and integrating foggaras, ghouts, jessour and other ancestral hydraulic infrastructures becomes not only a matter of heritage preservation but a strategic imperative. These systems should be viewed not as relics of the past, but as dynamic, living tools for climate adaptation, sustainable water management, ecosystem stewardship, and cultural and economic development. They show that human ingenuity, when aligned with natural processes, can offer integrated and long-lasting solutions to the challenges of climate change, water scarcity, and environmental degradation, and deliver multiple co-benefits for people, ecosystems, and future generations.
References
[1] Santos, E. Nature-Based Solutions for Water Management in Europe: What Works, What Does Not, and What’s Next? Water 2025,17,2193. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17152193
[2] Boualem Remini, Bachir Achour.The foggara in Algeria: A hydraulic world heritage.January 2010, Revue Des Sciences De L’Eau 23 (2):105-117.
[3] Idda, S., Bonté, B., Kuper, M., & Mansour, H. (2021). Revealing the Foggara as a Living Irrigation System through an Institutional Analysis: Evidence from Oases in the Algerian Sahara. International Journal of the Commons, 15(1), pp. 431–448. DOI: https://doi. org/10.5334/ijc.1128
[4] Zeyneb Moulay Omar. The effect of boreholes on the traditional modes of distribution of irrigation water in the South of Algeria, case study Foggaras of Timimoun. Pan African University Institute for Water and Energy Sciences (Incl. Climate Change). Master in Water Engineering track. Academic Year: 2015-2016
[5] :Pascual,R.; Piana, L.;Bhat, S.U.;Castro,P.F.;Corbera, J.; Cummings,D.;Delgado,C.;Eades,E.; Fensham,R.J.; Fernández-Martínez, M.;et al. The Cultural Ecohydrogeology of Mediterranean-Climate Springs: A Global Review with Case Studies. Environments2024,11,110. https:// doi.org/10.3390/environments 11060110
[6] https://www.aljest.net/index.php/aljest/article/view/310?utm
[7].https://www.emkp.org/foggaras-water-production-in-the-adrar-palm-grove-oases-sahara-algeria/?utm
[8] https://www.larhyss.net/ojs/index.php/larhyss/article/view/703?utm
[9] https://www.undp.org/fr/algeria/blog/sustainable-irrigation-thanks-foggaras-algerian-sahara?utm
[10] Mohamed, B., Remini, B. Water wells’ exploitation and its impact on the drying up of foggaras. Appl Water Sci 7, 349–359 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0250-2
