The rapid acceleration of the global energy transition has placed critical minerals at the center of economic, technological, and geopolitical transformations. Minerals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, rare earth elements, and copper are indispensable for renewable energy systems, electric vehicles, digital infrastructure, and energy storage technologies. International institutions including the International Energy Agency (IEA), the United Nations (UN), and the European Union (EU) increasingly describe these resources as the backbone of decarbonization pathways [1]. However, the expansion of critical mineral extraction raises profound environmental concerns, particularly regarding water consumption, water pollution, ecosystem degradation, and social inequalities. While these materials are essential for achieving climate goals, their extraction paradoxically introduces new sustainability challenges that must be urgently addressed through integrated governance, technological innovation, and circular economy approaches.
The demand for critical minerals has grown exponentially over the last decade, driven primarily by clean energy technologies. According to the IEA, the deployment of renewable energy systems and electrification technologies is expected to multiply mineral demand several times by 2040, particularly for lithium, cobalt, and nickel used in batteries [1]. This surge in demand implies a significant expansion of mining activities worldwide, often in environmentally sensitive and water-scarce regions. Indeed, recent analyses indicate that at least 16% of global critical mineral extraction sites are located in areas experiencing high or extremely high water stress, where competition for water resources is already intense [2]. This spatial overlap between mineral resources and water scarcity constitutes one of the most critical environmental risks associated with the energy transition.
Water plays a central role in nearly all stages of mineral extraction and processing. It is used for ore separation, dust suppression, slurry transport, cooling systems, and chemical processing. Consequently, mining operations can require vast quantities of water, often exceeding local availability. Lithium extraction, particularly from brine deposits in South America’s “lithium triangle” (Chile, Argentina, Bolivia), is emblematic of this issue. The conventional evaporation method involves pumping large volumes of saline groundwater to the surface, where it is left to evaporate in ponds over several months. This process can require up to 500,000 gallons of brine water per ton of lithium produced [2]. Although brine itself is not potable, its extraction disrupts hydrological balances, potentially leading to freshwater depletion, aquifer mixing, and salinization of surrounding ecosystems.
The environmental consequences of such water-intensive practices are particularly severe in arid regions. In Chile’s Salar de Atacama, one of the driest places on Earth, lithium and copper mining operations have been reported to consume more than 65% of the region’s available water resources [2]. This has led to declining groundwater levels, degradation of wetlands, and significant impacts on biodiversity, including endemic species dependent on fragile desert ecosystems. Moreover, indigenous communities relying on limited water resources for agriculture and livestock have experienced reduced water availability and contamination risks. These localized impacts highlight the broader issue of environmental justice associated with critical mineral extraction, where the environmental costs are disproportionately borne by vulnerable populations.
Beyond water depletion, water pollution represents another major environmental concern. Mining processes often generate large volumes of waste containing heavy metals, acids, and toxic chemicals. These contaminants can infiltrate surface water and groundwater systems through tailings leaks, acid mine drainage, and improper waste disposal. For example, cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has been associated with significant water contamination, affecting both human health and ecosystems [3]. Similar patterns have been observed in graphite mining regions in China, where chemical processing has led to water quality degradation [2]. These impacts are exacerbated by weak regulatory frameworks and insufficient environmental monitoring in many resource-rich countries.
The United Nations University (UNU) has emphasized the systemic nature of these challenges, warning that the environmental and social costs of critical mineral extraction are often externalized to vulnerable communities, while the benefits accrue globally through clean energy technologies [4]. This asymmetry raises critical questions about the sustainability and equity of current supply chains. The concept of “green extractivism” has emerged to describe this phenomenon, whereby the pursuit of low-carbon technologies reproduces patterns of environmental degradation and social inequality historically associated with fossil fuel extraction.
In response to these challenges, technological innovation is often presented as a potential solution to reduce the environmental footprint of mineral extraction. One promising approach is direct lithium extraction (DLE), which aims to recover lithium from brine without extensive evaporation. Compared to traditional methods, DLE technologies can significantly reduce water consumption, minimize land use, and decrease the risk of contamination. However, these technologies are still in early stages of development and face challenges related to scalability, cost, and environmental trade-offs, including energy use and chemical inputs [5]. Therefore, while technological improvements are necessary, they are not sufficient on their own to address the broader sustainability challenges of the sector.
Policy frameworks and governance mechanisms play a crucial role in mitigating environmental impacts. The IEA highlights water management as a key priority for sustainable mineral supply chains, alongside greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity protection, and community engagement [6]. Effective governance requires robust environmental regulations, transparent reporting, and inclusive decision-making processes that involve local communities and Indigenous peoples. However, many countries hosting critical mineral resources face governance challenges, including limited regulatory capacity, and lack of enforcement. These issues can lead to environmental degradation, human rights violations, and social conflicts.
The European Union has recognized the strategic importance of critical minerals through initiatives such as the Critical Raw Materials Act, which aims to secure sustainable and diversified supply chains [7]. Nevertheless, the EU remains heavily dependent on imports from regions with varying environmental and social standards. Recent reports have highlighted the risks associated with this dependency, including supply disruptions and ethical concerns related to mining practices. As a result, the EU is increasingly promoting domestic mining, recycling, and circular economy strategies to reduce reliance on primary extraction and minimize environmental impacts.
Circular economy approaches offer significant potential to alleviate pressure on natural resources and reduce water consumption associated with mining. Recycling of batteries, electronic waste, and industrial materials can recover valuable metals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel, thereby reducing the need for new extraction. Additionally, improving product design, extending product lifetimes, and promoting material efficiency can further decrease demand for virgin resources. However, current recycling rates for many critical minerals remain low due to technical, economic, and logistical challenges [8]. Scaling up recycling infrastructure and developing efficient recovery technologies are therefore essential components of a sustainable mineral strategy.
Water stewardship is another critical dimension of sustainable mining. Companies are increasingly adopting water management practices aimed at reducing consumption, improving efficiency, and minimizing environmental impacts. These include water recycling and reuse, desalination, dry processing techniques, and the use of alternative water sources. Some mining companies have set ambitious targets to reduce water use and improve water quality, reflecting growing awareness of water-related risks [6]. However, voluntary initiatives alone are insufficient, and stronger regulatory frameworks are needed to ensure accountability and compliance.
Furthermore, the integration of environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria into investment and supply chain decisions is gaining momentum. Investors, consumers, and policymakers are increasingly demanding transparency and sustainability in mineral sourcing. Initiatives such as the Global Battery Alliance’s “Battery Passport” aim to track the environmental and social impacts of battery production, including water use and emissions [9]. Such tools can enhance traceability, improve accountability, and support more sustainable consumption patterns.
Despite these efforts, significant challenges remain. The projected growth in mineral demand implies that even with improved efficiency and recycling, mining activities will continue to expand in the coming decades. This raises concerns about cumulative environmental impacts, including land degradation, biodiversity loss, and water scarcity. Climate change further exacerbates these challenges by altering precipitation patterns, increasing drought frequency, and intensifying water stress in many regions [4]. Therefore, a holistic and integrated approach is required to balance the benefits of critical minerals with their environmental and social costs.
Conclusion
Critical minerals are indispensable for the global transition to a low-carbon economy, yet their extraction poses significant environmental challenges, particularly in terms of water consumption and pollution. The concentration of mining activities in water-stressed regions, combined with the water-intensive nature of extraction processes, creates substantial risks for ecosystems and communities.
Addressing these challenges requires a combination of technological innovation, robust governance, circular economy strategies, and enhanced water stewardship. International cooperation and multi-stakeholder engagement are also essential to ensure that the transition to clean energy is both environmentally sustainable and socially equitable. Ultimately, achieving a truly sustainable energy transition will depend not only on the deployment of clean technologies but also on the responsible and ethical management of the resources that enable them.
References
[1] International Energy Agency (IEA), The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions, IEA, Paris, 2021.
https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions
[2] World Resources Institute (WRI), More Critical Minerals Mining Could Strain Water Supplies in Stressed Regions, 2024.
https://www.wri.org/insights/critical-minerals-mining-water-impacts
[3] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Mineral Resource Governance in the 21st Century: Gearing Extractive Industries Towards Sustainable Development, UNEP, Nairobi, 2020.
https://www.unep.org/resources/report/mineral-resource-governance-21st-century
[4] United Nations University – Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), Global Water Security Issues Series: Water, Critical Minerals and the Energy Transition, 2022.
https://inweh.unu.edu
[5] Flexer, V., Baspineiro, C.F., Galli, C.I., Lithium recovery from brines: A vital raw material for green energies with a potential environmental impact, Science of the Total Environment 639 (2018) 1188–1204.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.223
[6] International Energy Agency (IEA), Sustainable and Responsible Critical Mineral Supply Chains, IEA, Paris, 2023.
https://www.iea.org/reports/sustainable-and-responsible-critical-mineral-supply-chains
[7] European Commission, Critical Raw Materials Act, COM(2023) 160 final, Brussels, 2023.
https://eur-lex.europa.eu
[8] European Commission, Study on the EU’s List of Critical Raw Materials – Final Report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2020.
https://op.europa.eu
[9] Global Battery Alliance, The Battery Passport: Giving an Identity to Batteries, World Economic Forum, 2022.
https://www.weforum.org
