Zero Liquid Discharge and Brine Valorization in Seawater Desalination: Perspectives for the MENA Region

By | | , ,
Leave a comment

Abstract

The expansion of seawater desalination has significantly increased global brine production, exceeding 140 million m³/day, with more than half generated in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region [1]. Brine disposal poses environmental and economic challenges, particularly in semi-enclosed marine systems. Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) and brine valorization strategies aim to eliminate liquid effluent while recovering water and valuable minerals. This study analyzes current ZLD configurations, mineral recovery pathways, and techno-economic constraints. Particular attention is given to the Saudi Arabian national strategy as a leading example of industrial-scale brine mining. The findings indicate that hybrid membrane–thermal systems combined with selective mineral recovery may enable desalination to evolve into a circular resource platform.

Context and Rationale

Seawater desalination has become a cornerstone of water security in arid regions. Reverse osmosis (RO) represents the dominant global technology [1]. However, desalination generates hypersaline brine streams containing 65–85 g/L TDS in SWRO reject streams [1].

Global brine production exceeds 51.7 billion m³ annually [1]. Disposal costs may represent up to one-third of operational expenditure depending on discharge strategy [2]. Environmental impacts include localized salinity elevation, benthic ecosystem disturbance, and accumulation of chemical residuals.

These pressures have accelerated research into Minimum Liquid Discharge (MLD) and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) configurations [2,3]. Simultaneously, brine is increasingly recognized as a secondary resource for minerals and energy [3].

This study evaluates current technological pathways for brine valorization and examines their strategic implications for the MENA region.

brine production worldwide

Analytical Framework and Evaluation Approach

The present work is based on:

  • A systematic review of peer-reviewed literature (2019–2025) on ZLD and brine valorization [2–5];
  • Comparative techno-economic assessments of membrane and thermal systems [2];
  • Global mineral recovery potential modeling derived from SWRO brine composition data [3];
  • Assessment of national-scale brine mining strategies in Saudi Arabia [6].

The evaluation integrates four dimensions:

  • Technology classification and maturity
  • Energy consumption comparison
  • Mineral recovery potential estimation
  • Strategic and policy analysis

This multi-criteria approach enables a structured assessment of technological feasibility and regional applicability.

Technological Performance and Recovery Pathways

Water Recovery Enhancement through MLD and ZLD

MLD systems typically achieve 80–90% total water recovery using membrane-based concentration technologies [2].

ZLD systems reach 95–99% recovery by combining membrane pre-concentration with thermal crystallization stages [3]. However, thermal polishing may increase specific energy consumption by 10–20 kWh/m³ [2].

Hybrid membrane–thermal configurations appear to provide the most balanced compromise between recovery efficiency and energy demand [2,3].

Principal Valorization Technologies

Four major technological pathways emerge:

(a) Advanced Membrane Technologies

  • High-Pressure Reverse Osmosis (HPRO) [2]
  • Forward Osmosis (FO) [4]
  • Membrane Distillation (MD) [4]
  • Electrodialysis (ED/EDR) [5]
  • Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis (BMED) [4]

These technologies enhance selective ion recovery and reduce thermal dependency.

(b) Thermal Concentration and Crystallization

  • Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
  • Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC)
  • Forced circulation crystallizers

Thermal systems remain technically mature but energy-intensive [2].

(c) Mineral Recovery (Brine Mining)

Recoverable products include:

  • Sodium chloride (NaCl)
  • Magnesium compounds
  • Calcium salts
  • Bromine
  • Trace elements (Sr, Rb, Li)

A recent global assessment demonstrated that magnesium recovery potential from SWRO brine could theoretically exceed current global mining production [3].

(d) Salinity Gradient Energy

Reverse Electrodialysis (RED) and Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO) allow electricity generation from salinity gradients [4], offering complementary valorization potential.

National-Scale Implementation: The Saudi Arabian Model

Saudi Arabia accounts for over 30% of global SWRO capacity [1].

Under Vision 2030, national authorities have initiated brine mining strategies targeting:

  • Bromine recovery
  • Industrial NaCl production
  • Magnesium valorization
  • Integration with petrochemical industries [6]

Preliminary assessments indicate that mineral recovery could significantly offset desalination production costs [6], positioning desalination as a strategic industrial platform rather than a pure utility service.

brine production from desalination

Interpretation and Strategic Implications

Technical Viability

ZLD is technically feasible but remains highly energy-dependent. Hybrid membrane–thermal integration represents the most promising route toward scalability [2,3].

Economic Considerations

NaCl and Mg recovery show near-term industrial potential, whereas trace element extraction remains constrained by concentration levels and purification costs [3].

Environmental Alignment

ZLD reduces marine discharge impacts and supports circular economy principles [4]. Renewable energy integration is critical to reduce carbon footprint.

Regional Strategy for MENA

Desalination-intensive countries in MENA may reposition brine as a strategic mineral resource. Saudi Arabia provides the most advanced example of national-scale integration [6], illustrating how desalination can contribute to economic diversification.

Conclusions and Future Outlook

Zero Liquid Discharge and brine valorization represent a transformative pathway for desalination-intensive regions. Although energy intensity remains a major constraint, hybrid technologies and selective mineral recovery demonstrate strong potential. Strategic policies, such as those implemented in Saudi Arabia, illustrate how desalination may evolve from a water production industry into a mineral resource platform.

Future research priorities include:

  • Energy optimization
  • Selective extraction technologies
  • Advanced thermodynamic modeling
  • Renewable coupling strategies

Desalination is no longer solely a water security instrument; it may become a cornerstone of resource security in arid regions.

References

[1] Jones, E.; Qadir, M.; van Vliet, M.; Smakhtin, V.; Kang, S.M. The state of desalination and brine production: A global outlook. Science of the Total Environment, 2019, 657, 1343–1356.

[2] Panagopoulos, A. Techno-economic assessment of minimal and zero liquid discharge desalination systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 2022, 301, 113859.

[3] Morgante, C.; Herrero-Gonzalez, M.; Lopez, J.; Imholze, J.; Boffa, V.; Ibañez, R.; Cortina, J.L. Seawater reverse osmosis brine valorization: Global mineral recovery potential. Desalination, 2025, 580, 119718.

[4] Ihsanullah. Potential of membrane and thermal technologies for brine management and resource recovery. Desalination, 2022, 530, 115682.

[5] Mavukkandy, M.; Choi, J.; Lee, S.; Kim, I.S. Brine management in desalination industry: A comprehensive review. Desalination, 2019, 463, 123–137.

[6] Alt, S.; Fellows, C. Seawater desalination brine mining: National strategy and economic assessment. Water Policy, 2024, 26, 1123–1142.

Jordan’s Green Hydrogen Opportunity: Investing in Europe’s Energy Transition

By | | , ,
Leave a comment

Europe is moving quickly to clean up its energy system, and in the process is reshaping global energy investment and climate finance flows. This shift is opening a real opportunity for Jordan to turn its renewable energy advantage into a new export industry. Green hydrogen—exported mainly in the form of green ammonia and shipped to Europe—offers a practical way for Jordan to attract climate finance, grow exports, and support the goals of the Economic Modernization Vision.

green hydrogen in jordan

The vision is clear about what Jordan needs: a stronger economy built on exports, investment, and productive jobs. Achieving this will require more than policy reforms. It will require new industries that link Jordan to global markets shaped by energy security, climate policy, and long-term capital flows. Green hydrogen is one such opportunity.

Europe’s main challenge is cutting emissions in sectors that cannot easily switch to electricity. Heavy industry, fertilizers, shipping, and back-up power all need clean fuels. Hydrogen and its derivatives are central to Europe’s plans. But Europe cannot produce enough green hydrogen on its own. Power costs are high, land is limited, and permitting is slow. Imports have therefore become a strategic necessity.

The European Union plans to import up to 10 million tons of renewable hydrogen by 2030, much of it in the form of ammonia, using existing ports and shipping routes. This creates long-term demand that aligns well with Jordan’s export and investment priorities.

Aqaba sits at the heart of this opportunity. With access to renewable energy, land, water solutions, and a functioning port, Aqaba can support large-scale hydrogen production and its conversion into clean exportable fuels. In early phases, projects could produce hundreds of thousands of tons per year, with the potential to scale toward million-ton capacity over time as infrastructure and demand grow.

A major recent development strengthens this outlook: the 30-year concession agreement between Abu Dhabi Ports Group and the Aqaba Development Corporation to manage and develop the Aqaba Multipurpose Port. This partnership brings international port expertise, investment capacity, and long-term operational certainty to Jordan’s main maritime gateway.

This matters because ports are critical to the hydrogen economy. Europe is investing heavily in hydrogen and ammonia import terminals, storage facilities, and pipelines linked to ports in countries such as Germany and the Netherlands. By upgrading port infrastructure in Aqaba—storage, handling, safety, and logistics—Jordan can connect directly to Europe’s emerging hydrogen supply chains. This lowers risk for investors and improves project bankability.

From a finance perspective, green hydrogen projects fit well with the existing investment and lending structures. They can be supported through long-term off-take contracts, blended financing, and participation from development banks and export credit agencies. Financing is also increasingly available for enabling infrastructure such as ports, storage facilities, and hydrogen logistics. For Gulf banks and investors, this means familiar structures: large-scale projects, predictable cash flows, and shared risk with strong partners.

Jordan’s clean energy advantages are clear: low-cost solar and wind power, direct maritime access to Europe through Aqaba, and a strong track record in hosting private energy investment. The technology is already proven. The real task now is execution. With clear policies, better coordination between hydrogen projects and Aqaba’s port infrastructure, and early engagement with investors and climate finance institutions, green hydrogen can become a new export pillar for Jordan and a practical driver of long-term economic growth.

Things To Know About The Environmental Impacts of Fracking

By | | , ,
2 Comments

Fracking, or Hydraulic Fracturing, is a method to stimulate or improve fluid flow from rocks in the subsurface. Advancements in extraction technologies have enabled drillers to reach previously inaccessible gas in geological formations The technique involves pumping water-rich fluid into a borehole until the fluid pressure at depth causes the rock to fracture. The pumped fluid contains small particles, such as quartz-rich sand or chemicals, which serve to prop open the fractures. After the fracking job, the pressure in the well is dropped and the water containing released natural gas flows back to the well head at the surface.

environmental consequences of fracking

Fracking (or unconventional gas drilling) has a long history in the United States where approximately one million oil and gas wells have been drilled and fracked. The United States produces 75 percent of its crude oil supply due to massive hydraulic fracturing taking place across the country. Infact, fracking is being increasingly seen as seen as one of the key methods of extracting unconventional oil and gas resources around the world, including Middle East.

Fracking in the Middle East

Middle East is also showing good deal of interest in fracking technology as there is significant potential for producing unconventional gas in several MENA countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Oman, Jordan, Algeria and Tunisia. Oman is making serious efforts in unconventional gas development and is developing one of the most ambitious unconventional gas drilling projects in the world.

Fracking projects at Khazzan field in Oman is producing around 1.5 billion standard cubic feet of gas per day. On the other hand, Saudi Arabia, with estimate shale gas reserves of 600 trillion cubic feet, is expected to produce 2 billion cubic fee of shale gas from Jafurah project by 2030.

Environmental Implications of Fracking

Despite the obvious economic benefits, fracking has become a controversial energy and environmental issue in recent years.  Hydraulic fracturing has come under widespread international scrutiny, with some countries suspending or banning it due to environmental and public health concerns. These concerns have included geomechanical risks, groundwater contamination, air pollution, migration of gases and chemicals to the surface, waste mismanagement etc.

The injection of large volumes of pressurised water into a borehole may alter in-situ stress state and change the propensity of existing fractures to open or faults to slip, thus triggering potential seismic activity. The development of shale gas deposits is an energy-intensive process involving heavy equipment to pump water and create adequate drilling pressure required to extract gas from underground rocks.

According to The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, heavy CO2 emissions are linked back to the engine-powered fracking process, including the blending of fracturing chemicals and sand that are pumped from storage, and the high pressure compression, injection and recovery of materials into and out of the well. The process is extremely water-intensive where several million gallons of fluid are injected underground at high pressure to fracture the rock surrounding an oil or gas well. The use of huge amount of water in the fracking process is a contentious issue in areas where water supplies are scarce.

fracking and its environmental impacts

The US Environmental Protection Agency has repeatedly raised concerns that some of the fracturing chemicals could contaminate drinking water. Recent studies have detected high concentrations of salts, including those of radium and barium, in the flowback waters from late-end fracking operations. A report conducted by Cornell University concluded that hydraulic fracturing could potentially be worse for the environment than coal.

Another contentious issue is the air pollution caused by hydraulic fracturing which may result in serious health problems for communities in the vicinity of drilling sites. A recent study, based on three years of monitoring at Colorado sites, found a number of potentially toxic petroleum hydrocarbons in the air near the wells including benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene and xylene. The potential source of the chemicals is a mix of the raw gas that is vented from the wells and emissions from industrial equipment used during the shale gas production process.

بصمة خضراء… ما هو الهيدروجين؟

By | | ,
1 Comment

الهيدروجين هو العنصر الأول في الجدول الدوري، والأخف وزنًا في الكون. بسيط جدًا… ذرة واحدة، وإلكترون واحد، لكنه يملك قدرة هائلة تفوق بساطته. في كل قطرة ماء، في كل جزيء عضوي، في كل خلية حيّة تقريبًا، الهيدروجين حاضر. صامت، غير ملفت، لكنه أساسي لوجود الحياة نفسها. نادرًا ما نجده حرًّا في الطبيعة، وغالبًا يكون مرتبطًا بعناصر أخرى، مثل الأكسجين في الماء أو الكربون في الوقود الأحفوري. ومع ذلك، هذا العنصر الصغير بدأ يأخذ دورًا كبيرًا في النقاش العالمي حول مستقبل الطاقة.

الهيدروجين اليوم يُطرح كوقود بديل، ويتميّز بأنه عند استخدامه لا يطلق أي انبعاثات كربونية. الناتج الوحيد من احتراقه هو بخار الماء. لا دخان، لا ثاني أكسيد كربون، ولا جسيمات ملوّثة. لهذا السبب يُنظر إليه كأحد أنظف مصادر الطاقة الممكنة. لكن النظافة هنا ليست تلقائية، بل مشروطة. السؤال الحقيقي ليس ماذا ينتج الهيدروجين عند استخدامه، بل كيف ننتجه من الأساس.

hydrogen fuel

إنتاج الهيدروجين هو النقطة الفاصلة بين الحل الحقيقي والوهم البيئي. إذا تم إنتاجه عبر تحليل الماء باستخدام طاقة متجددة مثل الشمس أو الرياح، فإننا نحصل على ما يُعرف بالهيدروجين الأخضر، وهو وقود نظيف من البداية إلى النهاية. أما إذا تم إنتاجه من الغاز الطبيعي أو الفحم، فإننا نكون قد نقلنا التلوث من مرحلة الاستخدام إلى مرحلة الإنتاج. في هذه الحالة، يتغيّر الاسم، لكن الأثر البيئي يبقى. الهيدروجين هنا ليس مشكلة، بل الطريقة التي نتعامل بها معه.

اليوم، كثير من الدول ترى في الهيدروجين فرصة استراتيجية. هناك سيارات تعمل بخلايا وقود الهيدروجين، وقطارات بدأت تعتمد عليه، وتجارب لطائرات تستخدمه كمصدر طاقة، إضافة إلى صناعات ثقيلة تبحث عن بديل للوقود الأحفوري يصعب استبداله بالكهرباء وحدها. الهيدروجين يُقدَّم كحل لقطاعات لا تكفيها الطاقة الشمسية أو طاقة الرياح بشكل مباشر، مثل صناعة الحديد، الشحن البحري، والطيران.

لكن القوة الحقيقية للهيدروجين لا تكمن في التقنية وحدها، بل في الوعي الذي يقف خلفها. هل نستخدم الهيدروجين كجزء من تحول حقيقي في طريقة إنتاج الطاقة واستهلاكها؟ أم نستخدمه كغطاء جديد لنفس النموذج القديم القائم على الاستهلاك المفرط؟ الطاقة النظيفة لا يكفي أن تكون عنوانًا جذابًا في المؤتمرات أو في التقارير الرسمية، بل يجب أن تكون فعلًا يوميًا، وسياسة واضحة، وخيارًا أخلاقيًا.

ورغم الوعود الكبيرة، يواجه الهيدروجين تحديات حقيقية لا يمكن تجاهلها. تخزينه ليس سهلًا لأنه خفيف جدًا ويحتاج إلى ضغط عالٍ أو تبريد شديد، وكلاهما يستهلك طاقة. نقله يتطلب بنية تحتية خاصة، وخطوط أنابيب مختلفة عن تلك المستخدمة للغاز الطبيعي. وحتى اليوم، لا تزال تكلفة إنتاج الهيدروجين الأخضر مرتفعة مقارنة بالهيدروجين التقليدي أو الوقود الأحفوري، ما يجعل انتشاره الواسع تحديًا اقتصاديًا قبل أن يكون تقنيًا.

وهنا تبرز نقطة أعمق غالبًا ما تُغفل في النقاش العام: الهيدروجين ليس مجرد مسألة طاقة، بل مسألة نظام متكامل. فهو يرتبط بالمياه، بالكهرباء، بالمدن، وبأنماط الاستهلاك نفسها. إنتاج الهيدروجين الأخضر يحتاج مياه، والمياه في كثير من المناطق مورد نادر. كما يحتاج كهرباء متجددة فائضة، وتخطيطًا طويل الأمد يوازن بين الأمن المائي والأمن الطاقي. وهذا يفرض سؤالًا أكبر: هل نبني منظومة متكاملة ذكية، أم نضيف تقنية جديدة إلى نظام قديم مختل؟ الهيدروجين يكشف هشاشة التخطيط القائم على الحلول الجزئية، ويجبرنا على التفكير بمنطق الترابط: طاقة، ماء، صناعة، ونمط حياة. من دون هذا الترابط، قد يتحول من فرصة تحول حقيقي إلى عبء جديد يُدار بنفس العقلية السابقة.

green hydrogen production plant

هذا يعني أن التحول نحو اقتصاد الهيدروجين لا يتطلب فقط تقنيات جديدة، بل يتطلب تغييرًا في طريقة التخطيط، وفي سياسات الدعم الحكومي، وفي استثمارات طويلة الأمد لا تبحث عن نتائج سريعة. كما يتطلب تغييرًا في ثقافة الاستهلاك نفسها. فالهيدروجين، مهما كان نظيفًا، لن يكون حلًا سحريًا إذا استمررنا في استهلاك الطاقة بلا وعي.

الهيدروجين في جوهره ليس مجرد وقود. هو اختبار حقيقي لقدرتنا على التغيير. اختبار لمدى استعدادنا للانتقال من نظام طاقة يقوم على الاستخراج السريع والربح القصير، إلى نظام أكثر توازنًا، يحترم حدود الكوكب، ويفكّر في الأجيال القادمة. السؤال لم يعد: هل نملك التقنية؟ بل: هل نملك الإرادة؟

إذا فهمنا الهيدروجين بهذا العمق، يمكن أن يكون أكثر من مصدر طاقة. يمكن أن يكون نقطة تحوّل في علاقتنا مع الطبيعة، وصفحة جديدة نكتبها بوعي، لا بردّة فعل. أما إذا تعاملنا معه كحل تجميلي، فسنضيف اسمًا جديدًا إلى قائمة الفرص التي أضعناها.

الهيدروجين عنصر بسيط، لكنه يضع أمامنا سؤالًا كبيرًا:
هل نغيّر المنتج فقط… أم نغيّر النظام كله؟

The Hidden Environmental and Social Cost of Wind Farms

By | | ,
Leave a comment

The bottom line is that everything and everybody has an impact on the environment. Regardless of size, energy requirements, output or impacts. There are affects which we might calculate into the model or chose to ignore. Regardless of our choice of action, impacts exist. Wind farms as an alternative energy source is no different. Yes, they appear to be relatively clean and free, with lower impact than the traditional energy sources.

But what is the hidden environmental and social cost of wind power generation? Keep reading to know the answers:

wind farm

Countries have already made large-scale transition to low carbon emission sources of energy. There are vast swaths of land populated with towering wind turbines that stretch as far as the eye can see. As with every major development, the environmental impact reports and assessments highlight the positive and negative aspects of the new development versus the traditional or standard method of using coal and/or gas to generate power.

Research papers published in the USA have highlighted the land demands of wind and solar power sites within the USA. To meet the energy demands, yes wind and solar are far more favourable in ecological terms. But in mere spatial terms, the amount of land required to generate energy to meet the growing demands far exceeded initial estimates.

Land requirements can be anywhere between five to 20 times the land area initially calculated. These massive or large-scale wind farms could in fact, warm average surface temperatures. It has been estimated that over the continental U.S. the surface temperatures could increase by 0.24 degrees Celsius.

It is now very well understood that low-carbon technologies do have social and environmental impacts. To tackle this issue, estimates and calculations of environmental impact from low-carbon technologies on very expansive areas of land and/or water are required. The burning question is how much land or how much water is required to generate electricity that will meet future energy demands.

According to current thinking (for the past decade) it is considered that wind power generation has been over-estimated as the earlier calculations did include consideration of the interaction between the wind turbines and natural environment. But this interaction between structure and nature was underestimated.

The under-estimation is primarily due to the “wind shadow” created by the wind turbines themselves. This wind shadow effect slows down the turbine blades which reduces the amount of power generated compared to what was originally calculated on the draughting table. This means that turbines need to be spaced further apart to reduce the impact of the wind shadow. The reality is that the energy demands will continue to grow and its not feasible to consider and endless expanse of wind turbines covering the land. Eventually, the interaction and climate impact from wind energy generated power will be less avoidable.

Now that wind-generated and solar-powered electricity plants are up and running, there is real data to analyse and calculate the average power density factor. It appears that wind farms that are more than 5-10 kilometers deep there is major impact on the power density component.

It appears that the average power density of wind-generated electricity plants is lower than the average power density of solar farms. This means that more land is required to achieve the predetermined renewable energy target for any one site. This leaves the climatic impact of ever larger wind farms open for further discussion and calculations.

A windfarm in Morocco

140MW Windfarm near Tangiers in Morocco

The largest environmental impact will occur during the night when the turbines are actively continuing to mix the atmosphere near the ground with the air aloft when untampered natural environment would experience more still air without the enhanced mixing. Calculations suggest that the surface temperature in the night hours could increase by as much as 1.5 degrees Celsius.

The in-situ measurements have been compared with satellite-observations in various US states and similar temperature increments were observed and/or calculated. These warming effects will be localised depending on the operation size of the wind-power electricity plant. A key factor in these sorts of calculations is whether one is assessing for short term impacts of over a ten-year period or calculations are over a considerably longer period of hundreds of years.

A note to end on that must be considered in this debate is that the direct climate impacts of wind power are instant and immediate, whereas the benefits of reduced emissions accumulate slowly over time.

CARBONEVA: Reframing Climate Action Through Carbon, Energy, and Adaptation

By | | , ,
Leave a comment

Climate change is often discussed through fragmented lenses. Renewable energy is framed as a mitigation tool, adaptation is treated as damage control, and carbon is reduced to a single metric of emissions. While these approaches have helped structure global climate action, they increasingly fall short in a world facing accelerating climate impacts, systemic risks, and interconnected resource crises [1,2]. What is missing is not technology or ambition, but integration. Climate change is not only an energy problem, nor solely an emissions problem. It is a carbon management challenge that unfolds across energy systems, ecosystems, water resources, food security, and socio-economic resilience [3]. To address this complexity, a new conceptual lens is needed.

This article introduces CARBONEVA, a unified framework that embeds renewable energy, carbon dynamics, climate mitigation, and adaptation into a single co-evolving system aimed at long-term climate resilience and sustainable development.

Climate Action Through Carbon, Energy and Adaptation

From Fragmented Climate Action to Systemic Thinking

For decades, climate strategies have been organized around linear pathways: reduce emissions, stabilize temperatures, and adapt to residual impacts. In practice, these pathways have been implemented through sectoral policies that often operate in isolation [1]. Energy planning rarely accounts for ecosystem resilience. Adaptation strategies frequently overlook carbon implications. Mitigation efforts sometimes exacerbate water stress, land degradation, or social vulnerability [8]. At the same time, climate impacts are no longer distant projections. Heatwaves, droughts, floods, and water scarcity are already reshaping economies and societies, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions [1,9].

These impacts directly influence the feasibility, performance, and sustainability of mitigation strategies themselves. CARBONEVA emerges from this reality. It is not a new technology or a replacement for existing climate frameworks, but a conceptual evolution that recognizes climate action as a dynamic system rather than a set of disconnected objectives.

What is CARBONEVA?

CARBONEVA stands for carbon–energy–adaptation, intentionally coined as a single word to reflect a process of evolution rather than a checklist of actions. At its core, CARBONEVA reframes climate action around three fundamental ideas.

  1. Carbon must be understood as a dynamic element that circulates through natural and human systems, not merely as an emission to be minimized [4].
  2. Renewable energy is a structural driver of both mitigation and adaptation, influencing water security, food systems, and resilience [2,11].
  3. Adaptation and mitigation are not competing priorities but mutually reinforcing processes that must evolve together [8].

Under CARBONEVA, the climate transition is no longer about choosing between decarbonization and resilience. It is about designing systems where decarbonization strengthens resilience, and resilience enables deeper decarbonization.

Carbon Beyond Emissions

Carbon lies at the heart of climate change, yet its role is often oversimplified. Climate policy has focused primarily on reducing carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels, which remains essential [1,5]. However, carbon also exists as stocks in soils, forests, oceans, wetlands, and built infrastructure. These stocks regulate climate, support ecosystems, and underpin livelihoods [6].

CARBONEVA expands the carbon narrative. It recognizes avoided carbon through renewable energy deployment, stored carbon in ecosystems and materials, recycled carbon in circular economies, and natural carbon sinks as active components of climate stability [6,8]. Managing carbon, in this sense, becomes a question of where carbon resides, how it flows, and how it supports resilience.

This perspective bridges mitigation and adaptation. Healthy ecosystems sequester carbon while buffering climate extremes. Resilient agricultural soils store carbon while improving food security [9]. Circular material systems reduce emissions while lowering resource vulnerability [8]. Carbon becomes a connector rather than a divider.

Renewable Energy as a Resilience Enabler

Renewable energy plays a central role in CARBONEVA, but its importance extends far beyond emission reduction. Solar, wind, and other renewable systems reduce dependence on volatile fuel markets, enhance energy sovereignty, and enable decentralized infrastructure [2,11]. In water-scarce regions, renewable-powered desalination and water reuse can strengthen adaptive capacity [10]. In rural areas, renewables support climate-resilient agriculture, storage, and value chains [9].

Within CARBONEVA, renewable energy systems are evaluated not only by their carbon intensity, but by their systemic interactions with water, land, ecosystems, and communities [11]. Energy planning becomes integrated planning, aligning climate goals with development priorities and resilience needs. This integrated approach is particularly relevant in regions facing compound risks, where climate change intersects with water scarcity, food insecurity, and demographic pressure [1,10].

Integrating Adaptation and Mitigation

One of the most persistent challenges in climate policy is the artificial separation between adaptation and mitigation. CARBONEVA dissolves this boundary by treating both as interdependent components of a single system [8]. Climate impacts influence energy systems through heat stress, water availability, and extreme events [1]. At the same time, mitigation choices shape adaptive capacity by affecting ecosystems, infrastructure, and social equity [8]. Ignoring these interactions leads to maladaptation and missed opportunities.

CARBONEVA emphasizes feedback loops rather than linear trajectories. Emission reductions slow climate impacts, reducing stress on ecosystems and infrastructure. Stronger ecosystems enhance carbon sequestration and stabilize water cycles [6]. Improved resilience enables societies to pursue more ambitious mitigation pathways [3]. Climate action thus becomes a reinforcing cycle rather than a trade-off.

Why CARBONEVA Matters for the Global South

While CARBONEVA is globally relevant, its value is particularly evident in climate-vulnerable regions such as the Middle East and North Africa. In these regions, climate change threatens water security, food production, and economic stability, making adaptation an immediate priority [1,9].

CARBONEVA offers an alternative to climate models that prioritize emissions targets without addressing local vulnerabilities. By embedding mitigation within adaptation and development objectives, it supports climate strategies that are both globally responsible and locally meaningful [10]. For countries facing aridity, water stress, and energy transitions simultaneously, CARBONEVA provides a coherent narrative that aligns renewable energy deployment with resilience-building and carbon management [11].

Toward Climate-Positive Development

Ultimately, CARBONEVA shifts the ambition of climate action. Instead of aiming solely for “low-carbon” or “net-zero” outcomes, it opens the door to climate-positive systems that actively improve resilience, restore ecosystems, and stabilize carbon cycles [4,6].This shift has implications for policy design, investment priorities, and governance. It calls for integrated institutions, cross-sectoral planning, and metrics that capture resilience and co-benefits alongside emissions [7,8].

It also calls for inclusive approaches that connect climate action with livelihoods, equity, and long-term sustainability [10]. In a world where climate risks are no longer abstract, CARBONEVA offers a unifying framework to navigate complexity and guide the transition toward resilient, low-carbon, and adaptive societies.

References

[1] IPCC, Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, 2023.

[2] International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy Outlook 2023, IEA, Paris, 2023.

[3] UNEP, Emissions Gap Report 2023, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, 2023.

[4] J. Rockström, O. Gaffney, J. Rogelj, M. Meinshausen, N. Nakicenovic, H.J. Schellnhuber, A roadmap for rapid decarbonization, Science 355 (2017) 1269–1271. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah3443.

[5] UNFCCC, Paris Agreement, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Paris, 2015.

[6] B.W. Griscom, J. Adams, P.W. Ellis, et al., Natural climate solutions, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 114 (44) (2017) 11645–11650. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710465114.

[7] OECD, Climate Resilience and the Transition to a Low-Carbon Economy, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 2020.

[8] International Energy Agency (IEA), Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector, IEA, Paris, 2021.

[9] FAO, Climate-Smart Agriculture: Managing Ecosystems for Resilience, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2022.

[10] World Bank, Climate Change Action Plan 2021–2025, World Bank Group, Washington DC, 2021.

[11] IRENA, World Energy Transitions Outlook 2023, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, 2023.

Waste Management Landscape in Algeria: Challenges and Opportunities

By | | ,
1 Comment

The waste management sector in Algeria reflects a complex interaction between demographic dynamics, economic transformation, evolving regulatory frameworks, and persistent operational constraints. Over the past two decades, population growth, accelerated urbanization, and changing consumption patterns have led to a steady increase in waste generation, exerting growing pressure on municipal services, local authorities, and natural ecosystems.

According to national data compiled by the National Agency of Waste (Agence Nationale des Déchets, AND), Algeria generates more than twelve million tonnes of domestic waste annually, a figure that continues to rise year after year [1]. When industrial, construction, and special waste streams are included, the total volume of waste produced nationwide reaches approximately 30 million tonnes per year, highlighting the strategic importance of waste management within national environmental and economic policy [2].

a waste dump in algeria

Structural Weaknesses in the Waste Management System

Despite the scale of these flows, Algeria’s waste management system has long been characterized by structural weaknesses. Official assessments indicate that less than 10% of municipal solid waste is currently recycled, while the overwhelming majority is disposed of in technical landfills or, in some cases, uncontrolled dumping sites [3]. This situation reflects a combination of insufficient source separation, limited recovery infrastructure, and weak market integration for recycled materials. In response, public authorities have articulated a long-term strategic vision through the National Strategy for Integrated Waste Management and Valorization to 2035 (SNGID 2035).

This strategy sets ambitious objectives, including the valorization of 47% of household waste, 47% of special waste, and 60% of inert waste, with an estimated overall economic value of approximately 88 billion Algerian dinars. It also foresees the progressive closure of around 1,300 illegal dumps across the country, signaling a shift toward more controlled and environmentally sound practices [4].

The Economic Dimension of Waste

Beyond its environmental dimension, waste has increasingly been recognized in Algeria as a potential economic resource. Analyses published in specialized economic media estimate that the market value of recoverable waste exceeded 200 billion Algerian dinars in 2023, more than double its estimated value only a few years earlier [5]. This growth reflects both the rising volume of waste generated and the increasing demand for secondary raw materials, particularly plastics, metals, and organic compost. Additional sectoral analyses emphasize that waste recycling remains a largely underexploited source of value creation, with significant potential for private investment, job creation, and local industrial development [6].

In this context, the SNGID 2035 highlights opportunities for public–private partnerships amounting to more than 50 billion dinars and projects the creation of tens of thousands of direct and indirect jobs over the period 2019–2035 [4]. Nevertheless, recycling value chains remain fragmented, constrained by inconsistent waste supply, limited sorting at source, and insufficient investment in modern recovery technologies.

In response to these challenges, Algeria has undertaken significant reforms of the legal and institutional framework governing waste management. A major milestone was the promulgation of Law No. 25-02 in February 2025, amending and supplementing Law No. 01-19 on the management, control, and elimination of waste [7]. This reform, led by the Ministry of Environment and Quality of Life, marks a conceptual shift in national policy by explicitly recognizing waste as an economic resource rather than solely as an environmental burden. The law aligns national practice with circular economy principles by prioritizing prevention, reduction at source, reuse, recycling, and valorization over disposal [8].

One of the most significant innovations introduced by Law No. 25-02 is the formal establishment of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). Under this mechanism, producers, importers, and distributors are required to assume responsibility for the post-consumer phase of their products and packaging, including collection, recovery, and recycling [9]. The objective is to internalize environmental costs, promote eco-design, and mobilize private-sector financing for waste management systems.

The law also strengthens planning instruments by mandating national and territorial waste management plans and introduces provisions for digital traceability of waste flows, with the aim of improving transparency, monitoring, and regulatory enforcement [10].

Role of the Ministry of Environment and Quality of Life

Institutionally, the Ministry of Environment and Quality of Life plays a central coordinating role in translating the new legal framework into concrete policy measures. Through strategic programs, regulatory instruments, and awareness initiatives, the Ministry seeks to harmonize national objectives with local implementation. In this regard, the launch of the National Program for Integrated Waste Management represents a key step, providing technical and financial support to wilayas and municipalities to modernize collection systems, improve landfill management, and expand recycling and recovery capacities [11]. These efforts are embedded in a broader agenda aimed at improving environmental quality, public health, and urban living conditions.

The National Agency of Waste serves as the technical backbone of the system. Its mandate encompasses data collection, technical assistance, capacity building, and the promotion of waste valorization projects. According to recent agency data, more than 5,000 enterprises are currently active in waste-related activities across Algeria, covering collection, transport, recycling, and recovery operations [12]. This growing ecosystem reflects increasing entrepreneurial interest in the sector, particularly among small and medium-sized enterprises. However, many of these actors operate at limited scale and face persistent challenges related to access to finance, stable supplies of sorted waste, and reliable market outlets for recycled products.

Implementation Challenges

At the territorial level, implementation remains uneven. Pilot projects for selective waste sorting have been introduced in several major urban centers, including Algiers, Oran, and Boumerdès, often with the support of international cooperation or private partners [13]. However, coverage remains limited and participation rates vary widely. In many municipalities, waste continues to be collected in mixed form, significantly reducing the efficiency and economic viability of downstream recycling processes. Logistical constraints, and shortages of qualified personnel further undermine service quality, particularly in rapidly expanding peri-urban areas [14].

Media reporting and field observations consistently highlight the persistence of illegal dumping, littering, and inadequate landfill management, despite the existence of regulatory prohibitions [15]. These practices contribute to visual pollution, degradation of natural landscapes, and increased public health risks, particularly where waste accumulates near residential zones or water bodies. Environmental and social analyses published in the national press underline the gap between regulatory ambition and local enforcement capacity [16]. While Law No. 25-02 introduces stricter sanctions for non-compliance, effective enforcement remains dependent on coordination between environmental authorities, municipalities, and security services, as well as on the availability of human and financial resources at the local level [7,10].

Public Awareness and Behavioral Change

Public awareness and behavioral change are increasingly recognized as essential pillars of waste management reform. In recent years, the Ministry of Environment and Quality of Life and the National Agency of Waste have intensified communication and education campaigns targeting schools, associations, and local communities. According to public media reports, these initiatives have reached large numbers of students and citizens nationwide, with the objective of promoting waste reduction, source separation, and recycling practices [17]. Such efforts reflect the understanding that infrastructure and regulation alone are insufficient without sustained citizen engagement and social ownership of environmental objectives.

The Role of Digitalization

Digitalization has emerged as another strategic axis of reform. Recent initiatives seek to introduce digital platforms for monitoring waste flows, managing sectoral data, and improving coordination among stakeholders [18]. Broader analyses of waste governance in Algeria emphasize the potential of digital tools to enhance traceability, support policy evaluation, and facilitate investment planning [19].

At the same time, the deployment of such systems requires technical expertise, reliable data inputs, and long-term institutional support, which remain unevenly distributed across regions. The regulatory framework established by the implementing texts of Law No. 25-02 provides an enabling foundation for this digital transition, but effective operationalization will take time [10].

an engineered landfill in algeria

Waste-to-Energy Initiatives

Innovative treatment options are also being explored, notably in the field of waste-to-energy. In Algiers, a major project for the energetic valorization of municipal solid waste has been announced, aiming to process around 1,000 tonnes of waste per day and generate electricity for the urban grid. According to official press agency reports, this project is being developed and seeks to reduce landfill dependency while contributing to renewable energy production [20]. While such initiatives illustrate Algeria’s willingness to adopt advanced solutions, their technical, economic, and environmental performance will need to be carefully assessed as implementation progresses.

Future Directions

Looking ahead, Algeria’s strategic vision for waste management aligns increasingly with international trends and commitments to sustainable development. National objectives emphasize higher recycling rates, reduced environmental impacts, and the creation of green jobs, in line with circular economy principles and the Sustainable Development Goals. According to recent projections by the National Agency of Waste, Algeria aims to reach a recycling rate of approximately 20% by 2030, representing a significant increase compared with current levels [21]. Achieving this target will require sustained political commitment, adequate financing mechanisms, strengthened local capacities, and effective partnerships between public authorities, the private sector, and civil society.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Algeria’s waste management system can be characterized as being in a phase of transition. Substantial progress has been made in terms of legal reform, strategic orientation, and institutional engagement, particularly through the adoption of Law No. 25-02 and the reinforcement of the roles of the Ministry of Environment and Quality of Life and the National Agency of Waste. Beyond their environmental and economic benefits, these reforms have the potential to contribute significantly to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, notably methane emissions from uncontrolled dumping and landfilling, as well as emissions associated with primary raw material extraction.

By promoting waste reduction, recycling, valorization, and waste-to-energy solutions, the reformed waste management framework can support Algeria’s mitigation efforts and strengthen coherence between environmental policy and climate action. Nevertheless, persistent operational constraints, low recycling rates, and uneven implementation continue to limit overall performance. Bridging the gap between policy ambition and on-the-ground realities will be decisive in transforming waste from an environmental liability into a lever for sustainable development, while also enabling Algeria to advance toward its national climate ambitions and meet its commitments under its Nationally Determined Contribution within the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

References

[1] Agence Nationale des Déchets (AND), Données nationales sur les déchets ménagers et assimilés, AND, Algiers, 2024.

[2] Ministère de l’Environnement et de la Qualité de la Vie (MEQV), Situation environnementale en Algérie, MEQV, Algiers, 2024.

[3] Agence Nationale des Déchets (AND), Rapport annuel sur la gestion des déchets, AND, Algiers, 2023.

[4] Ministère de l’Environnement et de la Qualité de la Vie (MEQV), Stratégie nationale de la gestion intégrée et de la valorisation des déchets à l’horizon 2035 (SNGID 2035), MEQV, Algiers, 2024. https://www.me.gov.dz/fr/dechets-et-recyclage/

[5] Algeria Invest, La valeur marchande des déchets en hausse constante en Algérie, 2023.

[6] Algeria Invest, Le recyclage des déchets : une mine d’or encore sous-exploitée, 2023.

[7] République Algérienne Démocratique et Populaire, Loi n°25-02 modifiant et complétant la loi n°01-19 relative à la gestion, au contrôle et à l’élimination des déchets, Journal Officiel, Algiers, 2025.

[8] Ministère de l’Environnement et de la Qualité de la Vie (MEQV), Présentation et portée stratégique de la loi n°25-02, MEQV, Algiers, 2025.

[9] RegASK, Algeria Waste Management Law: Introduction of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), 2025.

[10] Journal Officiel de la République Algérienne Démocratique et Populaire, Textes d’application de la loi n°25-02 relatifs à la traçabilité et à la gestion des déchets, Algiers, 2025.

[11] Algérie Presse Service (APS), Lancement du programme national de gestion intégrée des déchets, Algiers, 2025. https://www.aps.dz

[12] Agence Nationale des Déchets (AND), Recensement des entreprises actives dans le secteur des déchets, AND, Algiers, 2024.

[13] E-MC2, Algeria equips three wilayas with selective waste sorting systems, 2023.

[14] Centre de Développement des Énergies Renouvelables (CDER), Gestion des déchets ménagers et assimilés : enjeux et contraintes techniques, CDER, Algiers, 2024.

[15] Presse nationale algérienne, Articles sur la gestion communale des déchets et les décharges illicites, 2023–2024. https://www.presse-algerienne.com

إعادة التدوير: قيم تبادل المعادن الأكثر طلبًا

By | | ,
Leave a comment

في الوقت الذي أصبحت فيه إعادة تدوير النفايات وإعادة استخدامها وإصلاحها هي القاعدة للحد من آثار التعدين وتغير المناخ ، قد يكون من المفيد معرفة أي المعادن يمكن إعادة تدويرها. تم إنشاء اقتصاد دائري جديد حول إعادة التدوير. يمكن لكل من المهنيين والأفراد إعادة بيع نفاياتهم المعدنية إلى مشترين المحول الحفاز أو الشركات المتخصصة الأخرى. ثم يتم تحويلها لمنحهم حياة ثانية-

إدارة النفايات

مبدأ إدارة النفايات: تقليل وإعادة الاستخدام وإعادة التدوير. إنتاج جديد من القديم: هذا أحد أكبرالتحديات التي تواجه البشرية. في السنوات الخمسين الماضية ، أدى تطوير تقنيات جديدة إلى استغلال أكثر كثافة للأرض وقاع البحر لاستخراج المعادن النادرة

نظرًا لوجود عدد أكبر منا على كوكب الأرض ، يجب أن نفكر في الحفاظ على مواردنا وبالتالي إعادة تدوير هذه المعادن والأتربة النادرة. حتى الآن ، هناك العديد من الشركات التي تقدم شراء المعادن لإعادة التدوير أو إعادة البيع

المعادن القابلة لإعادة التدوير وقيمتها التبادلية

أسعار المعادن في فبراير 2020

السعر المعادن
 يورو / كغ 0,526 الصلب
يورو / كغ2,292 الفولاذ
يورو / كغ1,594 الألومنيوم
يورو / كغ47 الذهب
يورو / كغ5,469  

النحاس
يورو / كغ1,71 الرصاص
يورو / كغ2,045 الزنك
يورو / كغ0,205 خردة

الصلب

 سبيكة من الحديد والكربون ، يتم العثور على هذا المعدن في كل مكان. تم اكتشافه في عام 1865 ، ولعب دورًا رائدًا في الثورة الصناعية وما زال يتم إنتاجه على نطاق واسع حتى اليوم. يتم استبداله حاليًا بحوالي 0.50 يورو للكيلوغرام الواحد

على سبيل المثال ، يتكون غلاف معظم المحولات الحفازة من الصلب ، ولكنه قد يحتوي أيضًا على عدة غرامات من المعادن الثمينة الأخرى مثل الذهب والفضة والرينيوم والبلاديوم والبلاتين. يزن المحول الحفاز أو المحفز (جزء من نظام العادم على السيارات) حوالي عشرة كيلوغرامات. إذا كان عليك التخلص من سيارتك القديمة ، فيمكنك أن تسأل شركة متخصصة عن سعر إعادة شراء المحول الحفاز الخاص بك ، حتى لو كان في حالة سيئة ولا يعمل. بالإضافة إلى ذلك ، غالبًا ما تتألف من معادن ثقيلة ضارة جدًا بالبيئة ، لذا كن حذرًا في التخزين

الفولاذ المقاوم للصدأ

هذا المعدن عبارة عن سبيكة من الحديد والكروم قابلة لإعادة التدوير بالكامل. يتم العثور عليه في العديد من المنتجات: أواني المطبخ ، صناعة الطيران ، الصناعة والعديد من الأشياء اليومية الأخرى. لديه ميزة عدم الصدأ ويباع بحوالي 2.3 يورو للكيلوغرام الواحد

الألومنيوم

هذا المعدن معروف بمقاومته، كما أنه بمثابة حافز في الصناعة الكيميائية. في عام 2010 ، تم استخراج 211 مليون طن من البوكسيت في جميع أنحاء العالم. يمكن شراء كيلوغرام من الألومنيوم بسعر 1.6 يورو في المتوسط

الذهب

 موجود في اللوحات الأم للكمبيوتر ، وفي هواتفنا وبشكل عام في مجال الالكترونيات ، يتم تداول الذهب الخالص حاليًا بحوالي 47 يورو لكل غرام

النحاس

سيكون من الصعب علينا الاستغناء عنه. يتم العثور عليه في الكابلات الكهربائية وأنابيب السباكة والموصلات الفائقة. في عام 2013 ، تم استخراج أكثر من 18 مليون طن ، ثلثها في تشيلي. يتم تداوله بحوالي 5.5 يورو للكيلوغرام الواحد

الرصاص

الرصاص معدن سام. وهو موجود كمضاف في الدهانات وكان يستخدم في البنزين قبل تغيير القانون. حاليا تبلغ قيمتها 1.71 يورو للكيلوغرام الواحد

الزنك

هذا المعدن موجود في السيارات ، والسقوف ، واقيات الشمس ، وحتى في بعض مكملات الفيتامينات الغذائية. الزنك يستحق ما يزيد قليلا عن 2 يورو للكيلوغرام الواحد

الروديوم

يتداول بحوالي 201 يورو لكل غرام. يتم استخراج هذا المعدن النادر جدًا بشكل أساسي في جنوب إفريقيا وينتمي إلى فئة البلاتينات الخفيفة

Water Engineers: A Pillar for National Water Security in Water-Stressed Regions

By | | , ,
Leave a comment

Water scarcity is now recognized as one of the most pressing global challenges of the 21st century. Climate change, population growth, urbanization, and industrial expansion have intensified pressure on already limited freshwater resources, particularly in water-stressed regions such as the Mediterranean and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) [1,2]. According to UNESCO, more than two-thirds of the global population experience water scarcity for at least one month per year, with projections indicating further deterioration under current climate scenarios [1].

Within this context, the role of the water engineer has fundamentally evolved. Beyond the design and operation of treatment plants and hydraulic infrastructure, water engineers are increasingly expected to integrate energy efficiency, digitalization, environmental protection, and risk management into their decision-making processes [3]. This evolution places engineering education and professional training at the core of national water security strategies.

a water engineer working in a water treatment plant

Water Security as a Strategic National Issue

Drivers of Water Stress

The intensification of water stress is driven by several interconnected factors:

  • Increased climate variability and frequency of extreme events such as droughts and heatwaves [2];
  • Overexploitation and contamination of groundwater resources [4];
  • Rapid demographic growth and urban concentration in coastal areas;
  • Rising industrial and agricultural water demand.

These pressures directly affect public health, food production, industrial continuity, and social stability, making water security a matter of national strategic importance [5].

The Strategic Role of the Water Engineer

In this framework, water engineers are no longer limited to technical execution. They are required to contribute to:

  • Long-term water planning and infrastructure resilience;
  • Optimization of water–energy systems;
  • Compliance with international water quality and safety standards;
  • Crisis management and adaptive strategies.

As such, the water engineer becomes a key actor in ensuring national sovereignty and sustainable development [6].

Core Competencies for Modern Water Engineers

Technical Foundations

A strong technical background remains essential, particularly in:

  • Pretreatment processes and conventional water treatment;
  • Membrane-based technologies such as ultrafiltration (UF), reverse osmosis (RO), and membrane bioreactors (MBR);
  • Hydraulics, mass balances, and wastewater treatment;
  • Membrane fouling mechanisms and performance indicators [7].

Systemic and Energy-Oriented Thinking

Water treatment and desalination systems are among the most energy-intensive infrastructures. Engineers must therefore master:

  • Water–energy nexus concepts;
  • Specific energy consumption (SEC) analysis;
  • Process efficiency and lifecycle performance assessment;
  • Trade-offs between recovery rates, energy use, and system reliability [6,8].

Digitalization and Intelligent Tools

The rapid digital transformation of the water sector has introduced new tools and methodologies, including:

  • Process simulation and design software;
  • Internet of Things (IoT) for real-time monitoring;
  • Artificial intelligence for predictive maintenance and optimization;
  • Digital twins for system diagnosis and performance forecasting [9].

These tools are increasingly central to modern water plant operation and optimization.

Field Experience and Communication Skills

Technical expertise alone is insufficient without a strong understanding of real operational conditions. Effective water engineers must:

  • Diagnose system failures and performance losses on site;
  • Understand operational constraints and maintenance challenges;
  • Communicate clearly with operators, decision-makers, and stakeholders;
  • Translate technical analyses into economically viable solutions.

Market Expectations and Professional Demand

The global water sector increasingly demands engineers capable of combining:

  • System diagnostics and optimization;
  • Energy efficiency and sustainability assessment;
  • Knowledge of international standards (WHO, ISO, AWWA) [10];
  • Project management and plant operation skills;
  • Ability to work in international and multidisciplinary environments.

This convergence reflects the sector’s need for professionals who can bridge scientific rigor, innovation, and practical implementation

Desalination as a Strategic Growth Sector

Global and Regional Trends

Desalination, particularly seawater reverse osmosis, has become a structural component of water supply strategies in water-scarce regions. Global installed RO capacity continues to grow at an estimated annual rate of 6–8% [11]. Africa and the Middle East are witnessing rapid deployment of containerized desalination systems, while existing plants face increasing demand for membrane replacement and performance optimization.

Digitalization and Future Perspectives

The integration of artificial intelligence, digital twins, and advanced monitoring is accelerating the transition toward smart desalination plants [9,12]. These developments aim to reduce energy consumption, extend membrane lifetime, and improve operational reliability, positioning desalination as a cornerstone of climate adaptation strategies.

sustainable engineering

Education and Capacity Building: Becoming an Agent of Change

To effectively contribute to water security, future water engineers must:

  • Understand local and regional water challenges;
  • Engage in continuous professional development;
  • Participate in international research and industrial collaborations;
  • Contribute to large-scale projects in drinking water supply, desalination, and water reuse;
  • Develop a long-term vision aligned with national sustainability objectives.

Human capital development in the water sector is therefore a strategic investment rather than a purely academic concern [1,5].

Conclusion

In an era of increasing water stress, the water engineer plays a central role in ensuring national stability, economic development, and environmental protection. This profession now requires a unique combination of technical expertise, systems thinking, digital competence, and field experience. Investing in the training of the next generation of water engineers is not optional—it is a strategic imperative for water-stressed regions seeking long-term resilience and sovereignty.

References

  1. UNESCO, World Water Development Report 2024: Water for a Sustainable Peace, UNESCO Publishing, Paris, 2024.
  2. IPCC, Climate Change 2023: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Cambridge University Press, 2023.
  3. Shannon M.A., et al., Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades, Nature, 2008, 452, 301–310.
  4. OECD, Water Security for Better Lives, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2021.
  5. World Bank, High and Dry: Climate Change, Water, and the Economy, World Bank, 2016.
  6. International Energy Agency (IEA), The Water–Energy Nexus, IEA Publications, 2023.
  7. Malaeb L., Ayoub G.M., Reverse osmosis technology for water treatment, Desalination, 2011, 267, 1–8.
  8. Elimelech M., Phillip W.A., The future of seawater desalination, Science, 2011, 333, 712–717.
  9. Li Z., Yang S., et al., Digital twins and AI-driven optimization in desalination plants, Water Research, 2023, 232, 119708.
  10. World Health Organization, Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 4th ed., WHO, Geneva, 2022.
  11. Ghaffour N., Missimer T.M., Amy G.L., Economics of desalination, Desalination, 2013, 309, 197–207.
  12. Voutchkov N., Desalination Project Cost Estimating and Management, McGraw-Hill, 2018.

التنوع الحيوي الغابي في الأردن

By | | , ,
1 Comment

تعاني الغابات في العالم من ضغوطات هائلة, حيث أن تقلص الغطاء الحرجي في العالم آخذ في التسارع بمعدل ينذر بالخطر وبسرعة تتجاوز قدرة الطبيعة على تعويض الخسارة, إن لإزالة الغابات أثرسلبي مباشر وغير مباشر على الأنظمة البيئية مما يهدد الفائدة الإقتصادية والروحية والترفيهية والثقافية التي تقدمها الطبيعة للإنسان, ومن أكثر الآثار المدمرة هي التغير السلبي وغير الرجعي في التنوع البيولوجي بسبب تدمير الموائل الطبيعية لكثير من أصناف الحياه البرية التي تثري النظام البيئي على كوكب الأرض. إن غياب الأشجار سيؤدي إلى تدمير التنوع الجيني مما يؤثر وينتج خسارة دائمة في أنواع نادرة ومختلفة من النباتات والحيوانات والحشرات والمايكروبات.

quran and the natural environment

كما تعتبر إزالة الغابات السبب الرئيسي في تغير المناخ العالمي وكذلك في إنبعاث الغازات المسببة للإحتباس الحراري, أيضاً فأن إزالة الغابات تقلل من جودة التربة مما يسبب تآكل التربة والفيضانات. وعلاوة على ذلك، شهدت المناطق التي أزيلت فيها الغابات زيادة في الجفاف والملوحة في التربة مما أثر على الزراعة سلباً, كما أنها تؤدي إلى حرمان المنطقة من الظلال التي تعمل على تلطيف الجو نهاراً وتحفظ الحرارة والرطوبة ليلاً, هذا الإضطراب يحدث تقلبات أكثر تطرفاً في درجات الحرارة التي يمكن لها أن تكون ضارة للنباتات والحيوانات والتنوع الحيوي بشكل عام, وكل هذه الآثار السلبية والمدمرة لإزالة الأشجار سيؤثر على مستوى معيشة كل مواطن.

الغابات في الأردن

تشهد الأردن تحولات هائلة في كافة المجالات ومنها مجال البيئة، حيث تمثل الصحراء جزءاً كبيراً من مساحتها بينما تمتلك مساحة حرجية محدودة جداً بواقع 0.9٪ فقط من مساحة المملكة, وتمتد من وادي اليرموك شمالاً وحتى مرتفعات الشراه ووادي موسى جنوباً. ومن المؤسف أننا في الأردن فقدنا حوالي ثلث غاباتنا الطبيعية خلال الثلاثين سنة الماضية وبواقع 1.6% سنوياً, ولكي نوقف هذا النزيف ونعيد حالة الإنسجام ما بين الطبيعة والإنسان ينبغي إعادة النظر في المنظومة الغابوية للمملكة.

تعتبر الثروة الحرجية إرثاً وطنياً وثروة من الثروات الوطنية الواجب الإستثمار فيها, فبالإضافة إلى القيمة الروحانية والثقافية والبيئية للغابات، فإنها تخلق فرص إقتصادية عديدة سواء من خلال إيرادات السياحة البيئية أومن خلال المنتجات التي يمكن أن تقدمها الغابة والتي تعتبر أيضاً جزءا من إرثنا الوطني, كما أن القيمة الإقتصادية البيئية المرتبطة بالدور الحيوي للغابة والمتصلة بزيادة نسبة الأكسجين في الجو ومستوى الرطوبة وغيرها لها إنعكاس إقتصادي مباشر, حيث أنها تساهم في تخفيض كلفة التدهور البيئي والتي تصل إلى حوالي 5% من الناتج المحلي الإجمالي للمملكة  وبما يعادل 850 مليون دينار سنوياً.

أنواع الغابات في الأردن

تقدر مساحة الغابات الطبيعية والصناعية والغابات ذات الملكية خاصة في الأردن نحو 378000 و 460000 و 60000 دونماً, وحسب المركز الوطني للبحوث الزراعية فإن هنالك هنالك خمسة أنماط للغابات في الأردن كما يلي:

1. غابات العرعر الفينيقي: تتواجد في البتراء ومنطقة رأس النقب وقمم جبال رم , وتظهر الدراسات أن عمر بعض الأشجار يصل إلى حوالي 700 سنة.  

2. غابات السنديان (البلوط مستديم الخضرة): تنتشر في جرش وعجلون والشوبك ودابوق وضانا ووادي الصفصاف.

3. غابات الصنوبر الحلبي: توجد في محمية غابات دبين وتجمعات ثانوية في عجلون وماحص والفحيص وسوف وزي.

4. غابات الملول (البلوط العقابي): وهي الشجرة الوطنية للأردن وتنتشر في العديد من مناطق المملكة وتصل كثافتها حتى70 %.

5. غابات السيال : وتتواجد في وادي عربة وهي ذو الأصول الأفريقية والتي تسربت أثناء تشكل حفرة الإنهدام.

مشكلات الغطاء الحرجي في الأردن

إن المشاكل التي تواجه الغابات في الأردن هي مماثلة للتي تواجهها بلدان البحر الأبيض المتوسط ​​الأخرى, حيث يعتبر الرعي والتحطيب الجائرين من ألد أعداء الغابات في الأردن حيث أن هنالك ضعف في الوعي العام  بأهمية الغابات ويتجلى هذا الضعف في إعتداءات مناشير المواطنين على  أشجار تصل أعمارها إلى مئات السنين، وهذا الإعتداء لم يكتفي بكافة غابات المملكة بل طال الأشجار على جوانب الطرقات! ومما زاد المشكلة سوءاً هو تجاهل تطبيق القوانين التي تحمي الغابات  مما ساهم في  إنخفاض المساحة الغابوية بشكل كبير في الأردن.

كما تهدد الغابات في الأردن العديد من الأخطار أهمها تعاقب سنوات الجفاف وخاصة مع تأثير التغير المناخي سلباً على الغطاء الحرجي في المملكة, كما تشكل الحرائق مشكلة رئيسية خاصة للغابات الصنوبرية, حيث يقوم أصحاب الملكيات الخاصة الواقعة في داخل حدود الغابات بالتخلص من مخلفات مزارعهم  وحرقها في تلك الغابات مما يسبب في كثير من الأحيان الحرائق. إضافة إلى ذلك فإن الغطاء الحرجي يواجه تهديد المشاريع الكبيرة التي لا تراعي المناطق الحرجية ويعتبر إقامة مشروع دبي كابيتال على أراضي غابات دبين قبل أعوام خير مثال على ذلك.

أهم التدابير لحماية الغابات وإعادة تأهيلها

إن تحويل المأساة إلى فرصة يحتاج إلى رؤية ثاقبة، وإيجاد حل شامل لمشاكل المشاكل البيئية في الأردن بما في ذلك إزالة الغابات ليست مهمة سهلة. إن الغطاء الحرجي في الأردن في تناقص مستمر ولذلك يجب التعامل معه بشكل شمولي لتكثيف الجهود الوطنية على كافة الأصعدة  من أجل المحافظة عليه وزيادة رقعته وإعطائه أهميته الحقيقية. يجب زيادة وعي الناس فيما يتعلق بحماية البيئة وتقوية إرتباط المجتمعات المحلية بالغابات وإشراكهم  في حمايتها, كما يجب تفعيل تطبيق العقوبات على المعتدين على الثروة الحرجية, ومن الجدير بالذكر أن وزارة الزراعة الأردنية ستنفذ مشروع “مراقبة الغابات والمساحات الخضراء” في المملكة إلكترونياً وذلك لوقف الإعتداءات على هذه الغابات.

types of art to celebrate nature

يجب على الناشطين البيئين الإنضمام إلى الجهود المحلية والدولية في التشجير ومكافحة تغير المناخ من خلال إنشاء نموذج للغابات في المملكة, مع التركيز على المناطق الجنوبية من البلاد مثل وادي عربة وصحراء جنوب الأردن. كما يجب تبني مشاريع بيئية تهدف إلى الإستغلال الأمثل للأراضي الصحرواية عن طريق إقامة حزام أخضر لمكافحة التصحر بوساطة زراعة الأنواع النباتية الأصلية والمناسبة لطبيعة المنطقة, وذلك لإعطاء النظم البيئية المهددة فرصة للإزدهار مرة أخرى,كما يجب على هذه المشاريع إشراك المجتمعات المحلية في إدارة وإدامة الغابات التي يجب أن تكون نموذجاً لإستخدام الغابات في الأردن لحماية التنوع البيولوجي في البيئات الجافة .

ومن الجدير بالذكر أن من أهم الطرق لمحاربة التصحر هي التعلم من الأجداد حيث عاش أجدادنا قبل آلاف السنين في قلب الصحراء ولكنهم عرفوا كيفية التأقلم والمعيشة والإزدهار في الظروف الصحرواية, حيث أنشأ العرب الأنباط مجتمعاً مستديماً وفر لنفسه الغذاء والحطب والعلف للحيوانات الأليفة والأهم :المياه  .لذلك يجب تبني الري بحصاد الأمطار وتبني مبدأ مياه السيول النبطي ومرافق حصاد الطاقة الشمسية، كما أنه يجب تنظيم عملية الرعي في المنطقة وإعتماد مبدأ البناء بالطين المستمد من وحي الثقافة العربية  لبناء مرافق الغابات.

Earth Hour – The Making of a Movement

By | | , ,
Leave a comment

Earth Hour is a worldwide movement for the planet organized by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Earth Hour engages a massive mainstream community on a broad range of environmental issues. The event is held worldwide and held towards the end of March annually, encouraging individuals, communities, households and businesses to turn off their non-essential lights for one hour as a symbol for their commitment to the planet

Earth Hour

Making of a Movement

Earth Hour started in 2007 in Sydney, Australia and was conceived by World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). On the occasion, 2.2 million individuals and more than 2,000 businesses turned their lights off for one hour to take a stand against climate change. Since then it has grown to engage more than thousands of cities and towns worldwide

In 2008, the Earth Hour became a global sustainability movement with more than 50 million people participating across 35 countries. In March 2009, over 4,000 cities in 88 countries officially switched off their lights to pledge their support for the planet, making ‘Earth Hour 2009’ the world’s largest global climate change initiative.

‘Earth Hour 2010’ was practised in a record 128 countries and territories and more than 6,000 cities joined the global display of climate action with over 1 billion people participating. Iconic buildings and landmarks from Asia Pacific to Europe and Africa to the Americas switched off their lights.

In 2011, more than 5,200 cities and towns in 135 countries worldwide switched off their lights for ‘Earth Hour’ alone, sending a powerful message for action on climate change. It also ushered in a new era with members going ‘Beyond the Hour’ to commit to lasting action for the planet.

In 2018, Earth Hour’s focus is on our connection to Earth and nature. Our planet’s gain is everyone’s gain. Biodiversity – the rich variety of life on Earth – continues to decline year on year. We must urgently prioritise our planet’s biodiversity and nature. #Connect2Earth was created to organise our efforts, allowing us to shed light on topics impacting our planet’s well-being.

Earth Hour 2019 with its campaign #Connect2Earth aims to build mass awareness on why nature is important and create an unstoppable movement for nature similar to when the world came together to tackle climate change.

How do you #Connect2Earth?

Get involved now by starting conversations, sharing your thoughts, and spreading the word about our connection to this place we call home.

Aims and Objectives

Earth Hour is aimed at asking individual, households and businesses to turn off their nonessential lights and other electrical appliances for one hour to raise awareness towards the need to take action on energy conservation and climate change.

The gigantic and overwhelming participation in Earth Hour showed collective display of our commitment to protect our planet. During Earth Hour, people across the world from all walks of life turned off their lights and came together in celebration and contemplation of one thing we all have in common – our planet.

Time for Action

The recent Earth Hour celebrated has gone beyond the hour, so after the lights went back ‘on’ participants were thinking about what else one could do to make a difference. We all now believe that ‘Together our actions add up’.

The awareness created has found enough reasons to join this annual campaign and making energy conservation as a ‘habit’ rather than practising it as an ‘annual event.’ We need to understand that we have a major responsibility of conserving our planet’s resources, since they are fragile, finite and each of us can make a difference if we choose to do so.

As far as Middle East is concerned, energy consumption is rising exponentially due to rapid industrialization and high population growth rate. Infact, the level of primary energy consumption in the Middle East is one of the highest worldwide.  However, the efficiency of energy production and consumption patterns in the region requires significant improvement.

So, let us make a change at individual level which, though it sounds small but cumulatively will add to significant levels in energy conservation by:

  • Turning our computer off when we finish our work and turning the monitor off during our breaks.
  • Turning off any unnecessary and additional lighting at our place of work and at home.
  • Using energy-efficient lights (LED, CFL, etc.).
  • Unplugging the electrical and electronic appliances when not in use.
  • Judiciously using heating and cooling system.

The message is ‘Let us go beyond an hour and do more what we can to reduce the energy consumption and its impact on the environment.’

Plan and participate in the event for a better tomorrow.

Black, Green, Blue, or Grey Carbon: Understanding the Hidden Colors of Climate Change

By | | ,
Leave a comment

Carbon lies at the heart of the planet’s major biogeochemical balances and constitutes an essential thread for understanding climate change, ecosystem degradation, and contemporary ecological transition strategies. Far from being a uniform entity, carbon; manifests itself in different forms and dynamics, often described through color codes black, brown, blue, green, red, and grey, which help to better grasp its origin, behavior in the environment, and its economic, social, and climatic implications. Although simplified, this typology has become established in scientific and policy debates as a pedagogical and analytical tool that facilitates the design of public policies, financial mechanisms, and sustainable management strategies [1].

types of carbon

Black Carbon

Black carbon is mainly associated with fine particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biomass, and biofuels. It is a major component of atmospheric aerosols and is characterized by a strong capacity to absorb solar radiation, making it a powerful short-term climate warming agent [2]. Unlike carbon dioxide, whose atmospheric lifetime spans decades or even centuries, black carbon persists for only a few days or weeks, but its radiative impact is particularly intense. It contributes not only to global warming but also to the accelerated melting of glaciers and snow when it is deposited on light-colored surfaces, reducing their albedo [3].

Moreover, black carbon poses a major public health challenge, being closely linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, especially in urban areas and regions that rely on biomass for domestic cooking [4]. Consequently, reducing black carbon emissions is often regarded as a measure with immediate co-benefits for both climate and health.

Brown Carbon

Brown carbon, which is sometimes less highlighted, refers to a specific fraction of particulate organic matter mainly originating from biomass combustion and natural decomposition processes. It preferentially absorbs radiation in the ultraviolet and visible ranges, with optical properties distinct from those of black carbon [5].

Brown carbon plays a complex role in the climate system, as its radiative effects can vary depending on its chemical composition, atmospheric aging, and environmental conditions. It is often associated with wildfires, agricultural burning, and emissions from peatlands, linking it directly to land-use dynamics and landscape management practices [6]. In a context of climate change marked by increasing frequency and intensity of fires, brown carbon is becoming a key indicator of climate feedbacks that are still insufficiently integrated into global models.

Blue Carbon

Blue carbon refers to carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems, notably mangroves, seagrass meadows, and salt marshes. Although these ecosystems cover a relatively limited surface area globally, they possess an exceptionally high carbon sequestration capacity, often exceeding that of terrestrial forests on a per-area basis [7].

Blue carbon is mainly stored in sediments, where it can remain trapped for millennia, provided the ecosystem remains intact. The degradation or destruction of these environments leads not only to the loss of essential ecosystem services coastal protection, biodiversity nurseries, nutrient filtration but also to the massive release of previously stored carbon [8].

Recognition of blue carbon has led to its gradual integration into climate policies, particularly within nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and carbon finance mechanisms, although methodological challenges remain regarding its measurement, monitoring, and verification [9].

Green Carbon

Green carbon corresponds to carbon captured and stored by terrestrial ecosystems, particularly forests, grasslands, agricultural soils, and inland wetlands. It is the most familiar form of carbon in nature-based climate change mitigation strategies. Photosynthesis is the main driver of this dynamic, transforming atmospheric carbon dioxide into plant biomass and soil organic matter [10].

Green carbon is, however, characterized by a certain vulnerability, as stocks can be rapidly released back into the atmosphere following deforestation, soil degradation, fires, or land-use change [11]. This reversibility raises critical questions about the permanence of biological carbon sinks and their integration into carbon markets. Nevertheless, green carbon remains a fundamental pillar of carbon neutrality approaches due to its co-benefits for biodiversity, food security, and rural livelihoods [12].

Red Carbon

Red carbon is a more recent and less standardized concept, generally used to denote carbon associated with activities that are highly destructive to ecosystems or that generate social conflicts, such as illegal deforestation, unsustainable mining, or certain carbon-intensive infrastructure projects [13]. It emphasizes the ethical and socio-environmental dimension of carbon flows, highlighting that not all forms of carbon storage or emissions are equivalent from a sustainable development perspective.

Red carbon thus reflects a critical reading of climate policies that focus solely on carbon volumes without considering impacts on human rights, natural resource governance, and the resilience of local communities [14]. This notion is particularly mobilized by civil society organizations and certain academic currents seeking to rebalance the climate debate in favor of environmental justice.

Grey Carbon

Grey carbon, finally, refers to carbon embedded in industrial goods and services, notably through emissions linked to raw material extraction, manufacturing, transport, use, and end-of-life of products. It is closely related to the concept of carbon footprint and life-cycle assessment [15].

Grey carbon is often invisible to the final consumer, as it is emitted upstream in the value chain, sometimes in regions far removed from the place of consumption. In the context of globalized trade, it raises the issue of shared responsibility between producers and consumers, as well as that of carbon border adjustment mechanisms [16]. Reducing grey carbon involves improving energy efficiency, eco-design, circular economy approaches, and the decarbonization of industrial processes, particularly in sectors such as steel, cement, and chemicals [17].

Conclusion

Taken together, these different types of carbon illustrate the complexity of interactions between human activities, ecosystems, and climate. They show that combating climate change cannot be limited to a one-dimensional approach centered on carbon dioxide alone, but requires a nuanced understanding of the multiple forms carbon takes within the Earth system. This differentiated approach opens the way to more integrated policies capable of maximizing environmental and social co-benefits while reducing the risks of counterproductive solutions.

As international frameworks such as the Paris Agreement and the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework increasingly recognize the links between climate, biodiversity, and development, the typology of colored carbons could play a growing role in guiding investments, designing economic instruments, and assessing progress toward sustainability [18].

References

[1] IPCC, Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
[2] Bond T.C., Doherty S.J., Fahey D.W., et al., Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 118 (2013) 5380–5552. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50171.
[3] Flanner M.G., Zender C.S., Randerson J.T., Rasch P.J., Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow, J. Geophys. Res., 112 (2007) D11202. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD008003.
[4] WHO, Health Effects of Black Carbon, World Health Organization, Copenhagen, 2012.
[5] Andreae M.O., Gelencsér A., Black carbon or brown carbon? The nature of light-absorbing carbonaceous aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6 (2006) 3131–3148.
[6] Laskin A., Laskin J., Nizkorodov S.A., Chemistry of atmospheric brown carbon, Chem. Rev., 115 (2015) 4335–4382. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr5006167.
[7] McLeod E., Chmura G.L., Bouillon S., et al., A blueprint for blue carbon: Toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO₂, Front. Ecol. Environ., 9 (2011) 552–560.
[8] Pendleton L., Donato D.C., Murray B.C., et al., Estimating global “blue carbon” emissions from conversion and degradation of vegetated coastal ecosystems, PLoS ONE, 7 (2012) e43542.
[9] Howard J., Sutton-Grier A., Herr D., et al., Clarifying the role of coastal and marine systems in climate mitigation, Front. Ecol. Environ., 15 (2017) 42–50.
[10] Lal R., Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security, Science, 304 (2004) 1623–1627.
[11] IPBES, Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, IPBES Secretariat, Bonn, 2019.
[12] Griscom B.W., Adams J., Ellis P.W., et al., Natural climate solutions, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 114 (2017) 11645–11650.
[13] Bebbington A., Williams M., Conflicts over carbon: The political ecology of climate change mitigation, Dev. Change, 39 (2008) 1–27.
[14] Newell P., Mulvaney D., The political economy of the ‘just transition’, Geogr. J., 179 (2013) 132–140.
[15] ISO, ISO 14040: Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 2006.
[16] Peters G.P., Hertwich E.G., CO₂ embodied in international trade with implications for global climate policy, Environ. Sci. Technol., 42 (2008) 1401–1407.
[17] IEA, Industrial Decarbonisation, International Energy Agency, Paris, 2022.
[18] UNFCCC, Paris Agreement, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Bonn, 2015.