Best Soil Types for Vegetable Gardens

By | | ,
1 Comment

You’re about to dig into your backyard, but choosing the right soil can feel like deciphering a secret recipe. Loam, sandy loam, or clay loam – each sets the stage for how vibrant your tomatoes and greens will be.

Before hauling bags, remember that soil depth adds up quickly; running the numbers with a simple topsoil calculator prevents over- or under-buying for raised beds and open rows.

organic soil in hand

Soil Composition Essentials

Before planting a single seed, grasp what makes soil thrive: balanced minerals, living organisms, air pockets, and moisture reservoirs working together to nourish dependable, vigorous vegetables.

Mineral Makeup Matters

Sand, silt, and clay combine to form loam – the gold-standard texture that drains well yet retains nutrients. A classic loam contains roughly 40 percent sand, 40 percent silt, and 20 percent clay, giving tender roots exactly what they need for steady growth.

The Living Soil Web

Bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and arthropods constantly break down organic debris, releasing nutrients and improving structure. Encourage them and soil begins to manage itself like a miniature ecosystem.

Air and Water Balance

Healthy garden soil holds about 25 percent air spaces and 25 percent water. That proportion lets oxygen reach roots while still supplying consistent hydration between irrigations.

Organic Matter’s Role

Compost, decomposed leaves, and well-aged manures act like sponges, boosting water retention in sandy beds and loosening heavy clay while feeding microbes for long-term fertility.

Nutrient Cycling

As organisms digest organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients become plant-available. This slashes the need for synthetic inputs and creates a naturally self-replenishing nutrition loop.

Identifying Garden Soil

Pinpointing your soil type prevents costly mistakes; once you know whether it is sand, silt, clay, or loam, tailoring amendments and watering becomes straightforward and reliable.

Simple Hand Test

Moisten a small clump, roll it into a ribbon. Sandy soil falls apart quickly, clay stays sticky, and perfect loam feels gritty yet cohesive in your palm.

Household pH Kit

Use an inexpensive probe or dye test to discover acidity or alkalinity. Most vegetables prosper between pH 6.3 and 7, though blueberries thrive in more acidic conditions around 5.0 to 5.5.

Color and Smell Clues

Darker earth usually signals rich organic matter, while a sour odor can indicate poor drainage. Sweet, earthy smells reveal active microbes busily decomposing previous seasons’ residues.

Mapping the Garden

Test several spots, label samples, and sketch results. Different beds frequently vary, letting you match lime-loving brassicas with alkaline patches and root crops with lighter soil.

Clay Soil Strategies

Dense clay discourages roots by holding water too long and compacting easily; fortunately, repeated organic additions and smart cultural habits gradually transform it into productive ground.

  • Add coarse compost annually to separate tiny clay particles, increase pore space, and invite earthworms that keep channels open even after heavy spring storms.
  • Use raised rows eight inches high so excess moisture drains away faster, preventing seed rot and allowing earlier planting when surrounding paths remain sticky.
  • Avoid tilling wet clay; working it while sticky creates hard clods that bake like bricks, reducing root penetration and increasing erosion risk later.
  • Plant deep-rooted cover crops such as daikon radish; their taproots drill through compact layers, decompose in place, and leave behind airy passageways for vegetables.

Consistency is key. Small yearly improvements accumulate, and within three seasons you will notice spade-friendly texture, fewer puddles, and healthier, more prolific harvests.

Sandy Soil Fixes

Excessively sandy beds drain nutrients swiftly, needing thoughtful management to keep moisture and fertility around long enough for crops to finish strong through hot summers.

  • Blend fine compost and biochar; the porous carbon traps water and minerals, reducing leaching while compost feeds microbes that further glue loose particles together.
  • Mulch thickly with straw or shredded leaves; evaporation slows dramatically, root zones stay cooler, and earthworm populations migrate upward into the protected surface layer.
  • Split fertilization into smaller, frequent doses so plants absorb nutrients before they slip below reach – liquid fish and seaweed blends excel for weekly spoon-feeding.
  • Grow green manure crops like crimson clover in fall; their residue decomposes over winter, adding organic matter and anchoring light soil against wind erosion.

Over time, these tactics convert thirsty, hungry sand into a resilient medium capable of supporting heavy-feeding tomatoes, corn, and squash with far less effort.

Optimal Raised Bed Mix

Building soil from scratch inside frames lets you bypass native problems; a balanced recipe supplies structure, drainage, and fertility for many seasons with minimal upkeep.

Classic Mel’s Mix

Combine one-third peat or coco coir, one-third coarse vermiculite, and one-third diverse compost sources. The result feels fluffy, drains well, and seldom compacts under rain.

Perfect Soil Recipe

Blend 50 percent screened topsoil, 30 percent finished compost, and 20 percent extra organic matter such as worm castings or aged manure for budget-friendly productivity.

All-Bagged Option

When bulk materials are unavailable, mix quality bagged garden soil with fortified blends and topsoil, then enrich with worm castings – handy for balconies or urban lots.

Testing the Mix

Plant identical varieties across beds, track vigor, yield, and disease. Trials like those run by Jill McSheehy at Journey With Jill show how head-to-head comparisons reveal the most cost-effective formula.

Testing pH and Texture

Regular tests prevent guessing games; a small investment in kits or lab analysis guides liming, sulfur additions, and amendment choices that keep vegetables in their comfort zone.

  • Collect representative samples from several spots six inches deep, mix thoroughly, and remove stones or debris to avoid skewing professional laboratory results.
  • Perform jar sediment test; shake soil with water and a drop of dish soap, let layers settle, then measure sand, silt, and clay proportions visually.
  • Use inexpensive dye kits for pH; color charts quickly show whether to raise acidity for potatoes or sweeten beds for broccoli and Brussels sprouts.
  • Retest every three years; weather, irrigation, and cropping cycles steadily change chemistry, so updated numbers ensure amendment rates remain appropriate and efficient.

Interpreting data correctly saves money, prevents over-application of fertilizers, and maintains an environment where roots explore freely without nutrient lockout or toxic imbalances.

introduction to greenhouse gardening

Organic Matter Boosts

Adding decomposed plant and animal materials is the single most powerful action for building resilient soil capable of withstanding drought, deluge, pests, and heavy production cycles.

Compost Choices

Home piles, municipal yard waste, or purchased blends all work; verify materials are herbicide-free and thoroughly finished to avoid introducing weed seeds or damaging residues.

Manure Management

Age or compost animal manures at least six months; fresh material may burn seedlings or harbor pathogens, yet properly cured manure provides slow-release nitrogen and beneficial microbes.

Leaf Mold Magic

Shredded autumn leaves piled and periodically transform into crumbly leaf mold. Its high lignin content excels at increasing water holding in sandy beds while lightening clay.

Cover-Crop Contribution

Winter rye, vetch, or oats protect bare soil, capture nutrients, and upon incorporation add organic biomass, enhancing tilth without additional hauling or material costs.

Extension Guidance

Oregon State University emphasizes organic matter’s versatility for every texture; explore their detailed recommendations at OSU Extension for region-specific amendment depths and timing.

Solving Common Soil Issues

Even well-tended beds occasionally falter; identifying symptoms early lets you intervene quickly, preserving yields while guiding long-term improvements that prevent future recurrences.

  • Crusted surfaces signal salt buildup from over-fertilizing. Flush thoroughly with plain water, then switch to diluted, targeted feeds instead of blanket applications.
  • Yellowing despite moisture often indicates nutrient tie-up. Side-dress with compost tea or chelated iron and verify pH hasn’t drifted beyond optimal vegetable range.
  • Stunted seedlings may suffer from soil-borne pathogens. Rotate crops, incorporate bio-fungicidal compost, or solarize empty beds during peak summer sunlight.
  • Persistent compaction arises from foot traffic. Confine walking to paths, lay boards for access, and introduce annual broad-forking instead of deep rotor-tilling.

Most problems trace back to imbalance. Balanced organic matter, smart watering, and gentle cultivation restore soil biology, unlocking healthier plants and heavier baskets of produce.

Smart Fertilization Techniques

Fertilizer should supplement – not replace – good soil. Precise timing, accurate amounts, and thoughtful placement keep plants thriving while protecting groundwater and saving money.

Base Decisions on Tests

Soil analyses highlight deficiencies; apply only what is lacking, avoiding the scattergun approach that leads to excessive salts, weak growth, and unnecessary runoff.

Choose Appropriate Forms

Synthetic granules deliver immediate nutrients but can burn roots; organic meals release slowly, feeding microbes first which then feed plants, smoothing growth curves.

Placement Techniques

Band fertilizer two inches beside seedlings or side-dress established rows mid-season; concentrated zones ensure nutrients reach roots before rain can wash them away.

Split Applications

Rather than one heavy dose, deliver smaller amounts every few weeks. Vegetables like corn and tomatoes respond with steady vigor, and leaching losses drop dramatically.

Record and Adjust

Keep a notebook tracking products, rates, and crop response. Over time patterns emerge, letting you fine-tune programs for maximum flavor, size, and disease resistance.

Harvest-Ready Roots

Armed with a clear grasp of composition, texture, nutrients, and moisture, you can read your soil like a map. Amend precisely, balance pH, and layer organic matter for sustained fertility. Observe how crops respond, adjust season by season, and you’ll consistently draw vigorous, flavorful harvests from the ground each year.

Seawater Reinvented: Inside the Race to Build Cleaner and Smarter Desalination

By | | , ,
Leave a comment

Desalination has stopped being an engineering footnote and quietly become one of the most consequential climate-era industries. Once synonymous with enormous power plants, thick plumes of hypersaline waste and prohibitive costs, modern desalination is remaking itself along three intertwined axes: slashing energy needs, turning brine from a waste into a resource, and folding data-driven intelligence into plants and networks. The result is a trajectory that could make seawater an affordable, environmentally acceptable pillar of water security for coastal and island nations ; provided the industry solves the brine and emissions puzzles fast enough. Recent projects and a surge of academic work show that the future of desalination will be less about brute-force evaporation and more about clever chemistry, smarter membranes, circular-economy thinking and digital twins that keep plants humming with minimal waste and cost [1-2].

salto de chira desalination plant

At the center of the energy story is reverse osmosis (RO). Over the last three decades RO’s relentless engineering refinements, more efficient membranes, higher-efficiency high-pressure pumps and sophisticated energy-recovery devices have driven down the electricity needed per cubic meter of produced freshwater and made membrane processes the global leader in seawater desalination. But the race is not over : recent literature and industry roadmaps point to gains not merely incremental but potentially transformative.

New membrane materials, including biomimetic and nano-structured polymers, promise higher permeabilities and fouling resistance, while hybrid approaches pairing membranes with low-grade heat drivers or electrochemical stages are attracting serious attention for their potential to halve or better the current energy bills. These trends are visible across specialized scientific journals and technical reviews published in 2024–2025 that place membranes, energy recovery and hybridisation at the heart of next-generation plants [3-4].

One high-visibility example of systems thinking marrying renewable energy and desalination is the Salto de Chira project in Gran Canaria. Built primarily as a pumped-storage hydroelectric complex, its design includes a purpose-built RO plant that will provide water both to operate the storage system and to supply local agricultural and municipal needs. Salto de Chira is emblematic of a new class of integrated infrastructure where desalination is not a stand-alone consumer of electricity, but a flexible load and a value-adding partner to renewable generation and storage. Financial backing from major public lenders for such projects reflects growing investor comfort with coupling desalination to clean energy and storage [5-6].

Beyond energy efficiency, the industry is being forced to confront an environmental Achilles’ heel: brine. Every desalination plant creates a concentrated saline effluent whose disposal can stress coastal ecosystems if not managed with care. But the story of brine is flipping from one of unavoidable waste to one of opportunity. A flurry of recent reviews and projects spotlight brine valorisation extracting salts, magnesium, lithium and other elements, and approaches aiming at Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD), where virtually nothing goes to waste. Electrodialysis metathesis, membrane crystallization and a class of electro-driven membranes are being trialled to recover marketable minerals while shrinking brine volumes. This shift has regulatory and economic implications: if brine can be converted into revenue streams, desalination plants move from being cost centers to integrated resource factories. The science is advancing fast: specialist conferences and journals in 2024–2025 have elevated mineral recovery and brine management to top priorities for the sector [7-8].

A second disruptive theme is the arrival of electrochemical and hybrid separation technologies for low-energy desalination. Electrodialysis (ED), membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI) and novel electrochemical desalination architectures are drawing attention because they can be exceptionally efficient for brackish waters and industrial streams, and because they open the door to selective ion recovery rather than blunt salt removal. The practical upshot is twofold: first, smaller plants serving coastal cities and industry can use less electricity per unit of freshwater; second, operators can target specific ions for recovery (for example magnesium or lithium), aligning desalination with the emerging market for critical minerals. Recent research papers have mapped these opportunities, stressing that these electro-driven solutions are especially attractive when paired with renewable electricity and when brine valorisation is part of the plant design from day one [9-10].

Artificial intelligence and digitalisation are the third revolution quietly unfolding in desalination. Traditionally, plant design and operations relied on static engineering rules and reactive maintenance. Now, machine learning, digital twins and remote monitoring enable predictive maintenance, fine-grained control of membrane cleaning cycles and optimisation of energy use in real time. The benefits are immediate: fewer unplanned shutdowns, extended membrane life, and operational savings that translate into lower water costs. Several recent analyses and white papers argue that the marriage of AI-driven control systems with desalination can deliver not only incremental operational improvements but also accelerate the rollout of small, distributed desalination units in off-grid and island contexts by reducing the need for expert operators on site [11-12].

Taken together, energy innovation, brine valorisation and digital control paint a future where desalination scales without replicating the ecological and climate costs of the past. However, realising that future requires navigating a thicket of technical, regulatory and socio-economic hurdles. Extraction of valuable minerals from brine, while technically feasible in pilot studies, faces challenges around concentration, selectivity, and economics. Lithium, for example, is present in seawater at very low concentrations; separating it profitably from a complex brine matrix requires new chemistries and economies of scale that are only just being explored in the literature and at demonstration sites. In short, brine is a goldmine in principle but a complex one in practice, and policymakers should be cautious about expecting instant returns [13-14].

For countries like Algeria, where desalination is already expanding rapidly to meet urban demand, the implications are concrete. National investment programs have ramped up the construction of coastal plants, and plans to source a larger share of municipal water from seawater desalination are accelerating. That expansion offers an opening to leapfrog older, fossil-heavy plant designs and adopt renewable-linked, low-waste models from the outset. Local manufacturing of key components, membranes and energy recovery devices also features in national strategies, which could reduce dependence on global supply chains and support a nascent domestic industry.

But such transitions require strong institutional capacity for environmental monitoring and a regulatory framework that incentives brine treatment and resource recovery rather than uncontrolled discharge. Specialist studies on North Africa and the Mediterranean region emphasize that integrated planning linking power, water and coastal environmental management is the only way to avoid shifting the burden from water scarcity to marine degradation [15-16].

Not everything is rosy. While the unit cost of desalinated water has come down substantially, the industry still wrestles with lifecycle carbon emissions when plants are powered by fossil fuel electricity. The comparative life-cycle analyses published recently confirm that thermal processes (MSF, MED) can carry much higher greenhouse gas footprints than RO when powered by hydrocarbons. The choice of electricity supply is therefore as pivotal as equipment choice. Where renewable electricity is cheap and abundant, desalination’s carbon bill plummets; where it is not, the social and climate trade-offs are stark. The policy implication is clear: scaling desalination without a concurrent decarbonisation of power systems risks undermining broader climate goals [17].

seawater desalination project in qatar

Which brings us back to finance and governance. Big desalination projects are capital intensive and typically attract a mix of public finance, export credit and private investment. Multilateral lenders have lately shown more appetite for projects that pair desalination with renewables or storage ; the financing of the Salto de Chira pumped-storage plus desalination complex is one signal that lenders prefer integrated, low-carbon packages. For smaller utilities and municipalities, however, the financing puzzle remains acute: distributed, renewable-powered desalination promises resilience but requires new business models, tariffs and technical skills. Industry analysts are increasingly focused on how regulatory frameworks, subsidies and innovative contracting can align incentives for example, paying for capacity and flexibility rather than for volume to make desalination both affordable and climate-compatible [5].

On the research front, the calendar of specialist conferences and journals shows a pivot from purely process engineering to a multidisciplinary agenda: materials science for superior membranes, electrochemistry for selective ion recovery, marine ecology to monitor and mitigate diffuser impacts, and data science to operate plants as smart assets. That breadth matters, because the problem is not a single technical wrinkle but a systems challenge that cuts across resource recovery, coastal planning and energy policy. Recent reviews and conference proceedings in 2024–2025 emphasize this pluralism and identify the most promising near-term priorities: demonstration of economically viable brine mining at scale, robust digital twin deployments that survive real-world noise, and demonstrated long-term durability of new membrane chemistries under real seawater conditions. These are the bottlenecks that, if cleared, could shift desalination from an expensive last-resort to a mainstream, climate-aware water supply option [18].

Practical timelines matter. The technologies that reduce operational energy by tens of percent ; better energy recovery, improved pumps and incremental membrane gains  are already deployable at scale. Technologies promising order-of-magnitude improvements (true biomimetic membranes, economical lithium extraction from seawater) are further from commercial maturity and will need directed R&D, demonstration funding and patient capital. For policymakers and water managers, that means two complementary strategies: accelerate the deployment of proven efficiency gains and integrated renewable-desalination pilots now, while funding targeted R&D and pilot programs for the riskier but higher-return breakthroughs. In doing so, they should insist on environmental safeguards, mandatory brine impact assessments, and incentives for resource recovery trials [3].

Conclusion

Desalination stands at a hinge moment. The past century treated seawater as a problem to be diluted; the next decade promises to treat it as a managed resource. Where desalination once implied heavy carbon footprints and piled-up brine, the emerging generation of plants aims to be leaner, smarter and circular: driven by renewables, attentive to brine as feedstock rather than waste, and run by algorithms that squeeze performance from every kilowatt and membrane square metre. The path is neither automatic nor inevitable, it requires concerted policy, finance and R&D, but the technical building blocks are falling into place.

If governments, utilities and industry seize the moment, desalination could shift from a late-stage adaptation to climate stress into a powerful tool for equitable, resilient water systems. The next big question will be whether societies can design the regulatory and economic frameworks that ensure the technology’s gains are shared and the ecological costs minimized. The science says the options are now on the table; the choice of which to take is ours.

References :

[1] Prabakar P,   Dyuthi Thampan,   S. Karthika,   Manthiram Karthik Ravichandran,   Aishwarya Subramanian,   Aditya Mosur Nagarajan,   Rayhan Hussain,  Krishanasamy Sivagami. Emerging investigator series: a state-of-the-art review on large-scale desalination technologies and their brine management. Environmental Science : Water Research & Technology. Issue 2, 2025

[2] TRENDS Research & Advisory – The Future of Desalination: Between Financing and Climate Challenges.

[3] Harjot Kaur, Gunjan Chauhan, Samarjeet Singh Siwal, Phil Hart, Vijay Kumar Thakur. Underpinning the Role of Nanofiltration and Other Desalination Technologies for Water Remediation and Brine Valorization: Mechanism and Challenges for Waste-to-Wealth Approach. Advanced Energy & Sustainable Research. Volume5, Issue11, November 2024,2400070.

[4] Andrew Jales Schunke, German Alberto Hernandez Herrera, Lokesh Padhye, Terri-Ann Berry. Energy Recovery in SWRO Desalination: Current Status and New Possibilities. Front. Sustain. Cities, 03 April 2020 Sec. Urban Resource ManagementVolume 2 – 2020  https://doi.org/10.3389/frsc.2020.00009

[5] https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2024-403-eib-approves-a-eur300-million-loan-to-red-electrica-for-the-construction-of-salto-de-chira-hydroelectric-power-plant-in-the-canary-islands

[6] Lozano Medina, J.C.; León Zerpa, F.A.; Pérez Báez, S.O.; Sánchez Morales, C.; Pino, C.A.M. A Study of Energy Production in Gran Canaria with a Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage Plant (PHES). Sustainability 2025, 17, 435. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su17020435

[7] Ojo,O.E.; Oludolapo,O.A. Innovative Recovery Methods for Metals and Salts from Rejected Brine and Advanced Extraction Processes—A Pathway to Commercial Viability and Sustainability in Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination. Water 2025, 17, 3141. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213141

[8] Aljohani, N.S.; Kavil, Y.N.; Shanas, P.R.; Al-Farawati, R.K.; Shabbaj, I.I.; Aljohani, N.H.; Turki, A.J.; Abdel Salam, M. Environmental Impacts of Thermal and Brine Dispersion Using Hydrodynamic Modelling for Yanbu Desalination Plant, on the Eastern Coast of the Red Sea. Sustainability 2022, 14, 4389. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084389

[9] Kang,Z.; Zhao,G.; Xiong, H.; Zhang,K.; Su,P. Research Progress on the Application of Electrodialysis Technology for Clean Discharge Water Treatment from Power Plants. Water 2025, 17, 2701. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/w17182701

[10] Elawadi, G.A. Low-Energy Desalination Techniques, Development of Capacitive Deionization Systems, and Utilization of Activated Carbon. Materials 2024, 17, 5130. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ma17205130

[11] Alenezi, A.; Alabaiadly, Y. Artificial Intelligence Applications in Water Treatment and Desalination: A Comprehensive Review. Water 2025, 17, 1169. https://doi.org/10.3390/ w17081169

[12] Anwur Alenezi, Yousef Alabaiadly. Emerging technologies in water desalination: A review and future outlook. Energy Nexus. Volume 17, March 2025, 100373

[13] Ramato Ashu Tufa, Sergio Santoro, Cherie Flores-Fernández, Roviel Berhane Zegeye, Diego Fuentealba, Marco Aquino, Belén Barraza, Bruno Marco Inzillo, Shahriyar Nasirov, Giuseppe D’Andrea, Elizabeth Troncoso, Salvatore Straface, Humberto Estay, Efrem Curcio. Advances in integrated membrane processes for sustainable lithium extraction. Desalination Volume 610, 1 September 2025, 118899

[14] Backer, S.N.; Bouaziz, I.; Kallayi, N.; Thomas, R.T.; Preethikumar, G.; Takriff, M.S.; Laoui, T.; Atieh, M.A. Review: Brine Solution: Current Status, Future Management and Technology Development. Sustainability 2022, 14, 6752. https:// doi.org/10.3390/su14116752

[15] Oussama Naimi, Lousdad Abdelkader, Fidjah Abdelkader, Hassiba Bouabdesselam, Mohammed Chemsedine Ezzine, Belatoui Abdelmalek, Mokhtari Mohamed , Smain Nour Elhouda. Studies in Engineering and Exact Sciences. Vol. 5 No. 1 (2024): Studies in Engineering and Exact Sciences, Curitiba, v.5, n.1, 2024

[16] https://asjp.cerist.dz/en/downArticle/109/9/2/274700

[17] Prabakar P.,  Dyuthi Thampan, S. Karthika,   Manthiram Karthik Ravichandran,  Aishwarya Subramanian,  Aditya Mosur Nagarajan,   Rayhan Hussain,  Krishanasamy Sivagami. Emerging investigator series: a state-of-the-art review on large-scale desalination technologies and their brine management. Environmental Science : Water Research & Technology. Issue 2, 2025.

[18] Elodie du Fornel, Elodie Le Cadre Loret, Jan Mertens, Jean-Pierre Keustermans, Céline Denis, Olivier Sala. Emerging Sustainable Technologies Edition 2024

Role of Algerian Matorrals in Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Adaptation

By | | , , ,
Leave a comment

Matorrals, Mediterranean shrublands including maquis and garrigue form a key component of Algeria’s ecological landscapes. Stretching from coastal zones to foothills and lower mountain belts, they serve as transitional ecosystems between humid northern forests and southern semi-arid steppes. Despite their limited spatial coverage, they host rich biodiversity, including many endemic and xerophytic species, and provide crucial ecosystem services such as soil protection, carbon storage, and hydrological regulation. Their structural diversity and adaptive traits make them among the most resilient vegetation types under Mediterranean climatic stress. Recent national studies and international assessments (IUCN, Plan Bleu) highlight their essential role in land management, biodiversity conservation, and climate adaptation [1-2].

a mattoral

Ecologically, Algerian matorrals display strong heterogeneity shaped by geology, topography, altitude, and human disturbance. Kermes oak (Quercus coccifera) dominates xeric, south-facing slopes, while green oak (Quercus ilex) thrives in cooler montane settings. Calcareous garrigues host aromatic and sclerophyllous species, whereas pre-Saharan shrublands exhibit advanced xeromorphic adaptations. Though often viewed as secondary succession stages, matorrals maintain essential ecological functions such as soil stabilization, erosion control, and facilitation of natural regeneration [3-4].

Their biodiversity is equally notable: matorrals contain diverse Mediterranean floras, many with ethnobotanical value, and support characteristic fauna including reptiles, small mammals, specialized invertebrates, and varied avifauna. Their structural layering creates multiple ecological niches, and their landscape position makes them vital biological corridors that maintain connectivity amid growing fragmentation, especially along the Algerian coast [5-6].

Matorrals deliver significant ecosystem services. Their root systems limit erosion in highly fragile mid-mountain environments and improve infiltration while moderating runoff. They act as moderate but meaningful carbon sinks and contribute to rural livelihoods through forage, aromatic plants, fuelwood, beekeeping resources, and other non-timber goods. They also hold deep cultural significance, being linked to longstanding pastoral and agro-silvo-pastoral practices [7-8].

However, these ecosystems face mounting pressures from climate change and human activities. Algeria is already affected by reduced rainfall, recurrent drought, rising temperatures, and increased wildfire severity. These factors disrupt regeneration, promote opportunistic species, and can drive long-term vegetation simplification. Anthropogenic drivers, urbanization, infrastructure expansion, agricultural conversion, and overgrazing further amplify fragmentation and reduce ecological resilience [9-10].

Despite these challenges, matorrals are increasingly recognized as strategic assets for climate adaptation and mitigation. Their tolerance to drought and degraded soils, combined with their role in stabilizing fragile terrains, makes them effective components of nature-based solutions. In restoration contexts, they often serve as pioneer vegetation facilitating soil recovery and the eventual return of tree species. Their importance is emphasized by the IUCN and other international frameworks [11-12].

Regional patterns confirm these trends. In western Algeria (Tlemcen, Tessala), green oak stands have transitioned into compact but impoverished matorrals due to overgrazing and drought. In Chlef and parts of central Algeria, repeated cutting and fires have produced heterogeneous mosaics dominated by pioneer taxa. Coastal maquis are increasingly fragmented by urban and tourism development, reducing ecological connectivity. Red lists and habitat diagnostics provide essential guidance to prioritize conservation and restoration [13].

Sustainable management requires an integrated, multi-scale strategy: detailed mapping of degradation, involvement of herders and local authorities, promotion of alternative energy sources, regulation of pastoral pressure, and establishment of buffer zones. Fire prevention must rely on strengthened monitoring, firebreaks, and fuel management. In heavily degraded areas, restoration may require reintroducing native species, controlling invasives, and rehabilitating soils. Aligning matorral conservation with Algeria’s NDCs would also enhance institutional support and funding.

Research gaps persist, carbon stock measurements, climate trajectory modeling, fire-risk analysis, landscape connectivity metrics, and ecosystem service valuation. Collaboration with Mediterranean scientific networks and international institutions (IUCN, UNEP, Plan Bleu) would strengthen knowledge and management frameworks.

Recognizing matorrals as full-fledged ecosystems rather than degraded forest remnants is essential. They are highly functional, resilient plant formations that support biodiversity, stabilize soils, and regulate hydrology. Their preservation and restoration are strategic priorities for Algeria’s ecological and climate adaptation.

References

[1] Mohamed Ali Bouzidi, Ali Latrèche, Ilhem Attaoui, Zoheir Mehdadi, Mohamed Benyahia. Caractérisation des matorrals et des garrigues à Urginea pancration Phil. dans le Djebel Tessala (Algérie occidentale). Géographie Physique et Environnement.Volume 3 (2009), p. 131-149.https://doi.org/10.4000/physio-geo.892.

[2] Belhacini Fatima, Anteur Djamel, Bouazza Mohamed. Impact of climatic variations on matorrals in the southern of Tlemcen (western Algeria). Plant Archives, Volume 20 No. 2, 2020 pp. 4981-4991. e-ISSN:2581-6063 (online),ISSN:0972-5210.

[3] Belhacini Fatima, Meziane Hassiba, Anteur Djame,t Bouazza Mohamed. Characterization of Groups to Matorral in the South-slope of Tlemcen (Western Algeria). J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 7(1)1-1, 2017. ISSN: 2090-4274

[4] José S.Carrión, Juan Ochando, Fabrizio Michelangeli, Francisco Jiménez-Espejo, Fernando Ojeda, Gabriela Amorós, Manuel Munuera, Ana B. Marín-Arroyo, Penélope González-Sampériz, Joaquín Rodríguez-Vidal, Federico Di Rita, Donatella Magri.Tracing 40,000 years of vegetation change in the Baetic-Rifan biodiversity hotspot. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology.Volume 331, December 2024, 105202.

[5] Chebli, Y.; Chentouf, M.; Cabaraux, J.-F.; El Otmani, S. Floristic Composition, Diversity, Palatability, and Forage Availability of Forest Rangelands in the Southern Mediterranean Region of Northern Morocco. Land 2023, 12, 215. https:// doi.org/10.3390/land12010215

[6] Valderrábano, M., Gil, T., Heywood, V., and de Montmollin, B. (eds.) (2018). Conserving wild plants in the south and east Mediterranean region. Gland, Switzerland and Málaga, Spain: IUCN. xiii +146 pp.

[7] Qiang Feng, Wenwu Zhao, Xiangping Hu, Liu Yue, Stefani Daryanto, Francesco Cherubini. Trading-off ecosystem services for better ecological restoration: A case study in the Loess Plateau of China. Journal of Cleaner Production.257(2020):120469.DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120469

[8] Balková, M.; Kubalíková, L.; Prokopová, M.; Sedlák, P.; Bajer, A. Ecosystem Services of Vegetation Features as the Multifunction Anti-Erosion Measures in the Czech Republic in 2019 and Its 30-Year Prediction. Agriculture 2021, 11, 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/ agriculture11020105

[9] Balzan MV, Hassoun AER, Aroua N, Baldy V, Bou Dagher M, Branquinho C, Dutay J-C, El Bour M, Médail F, Mojtahid M, Morán-Ordóñez A, Roggero PP, Rossi Heras S, Schatz B, Vogiatzakis IN, Zaimes GN, Ziveri P 2020 Ecosystems. In: Climate and Environmental Change in the Mediterranean Basin – Current Situation and Risks for the Future. First Mediterranean Assessment Report [Cramer W, Guiot J, Marini K (eds.)] Union for the Mediterranean, Plan Bleu, UNEP/MAP, Marseille, France, 151pp, in press

[10] Bright Danso Appiagyei. Degradation of the South Mediterranean forest ecosystem. A perspective on fire regime, land cover change and carbon stock dynamics: the case of Tlemcen, North-West Algeria. Doctoral Thesis in Forestry. University Abou Bakr Belkaid Tlemcim, Faculty of Natural, Life, Earth and Universe Sciences Department of Forest Resources. 2023.

[11] Artemi Cerdà, A. Giménez-Morera, Merche B. Bodí. Soil and water losses from new citrus orchards growing on sloped soils in the western Mediterranean basin. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 34(13)( 2009):1822 – 1830. DOI:10.1002/esp.1889

[12] Marios Andreou, Costas A. Thanos. Book of abstracts. 5th Mediterranean plant conservation week. Building alliances for plant diversity conservation in the Mediterranean April 07-11, 2025 • Limassol, Cyprus.

[13] Mezouar Khadidja, Benabadji Noury, Aouadj Sid Ahmed , Merzouk Abdessamad, Benabdelmoumene Fatna, Zouidi. Mohamed Some Edaphic Aspects of the Matorrals of Sidi-Djilali (South-West of Tlemcen). Advanced Research In Life Sciences 7, 2023, 54 -67. DOI: 10.2478/arls-2023-0007

6 Ways Tutoring Can Help Your Child’s Confidence

By | |
Leave a comment

When it comes to helping your child succeed in school, tutoring can be a huge help. But did you know that tutoring can also help boost your child’s confidence? In this blog post, we will discuss how tutoring can help improve your child’s confidence.

How Tutoring Can Help Your Child’s Confidence

1. When a child is struggling in school, it can be hard for them to feel confident

School can be a tough place for kids who are struggling. They may feel like they’re not as smart as their classmates, and they might start to doubt themselves. This can lead to a lack of confidence, which can make it even harder to succeed in school.

If your child is struggling, it’s important to talk to them about their feelings and help them develop a positive attitude. Encourage them to set small goals and celebrate their accomplishments. Help them to see that they are capable of succeeding, even if it takes a little longer than some of their peers. With your support, your child will soon regain the confidence they need to succeed in school and in life.

2. Tutoring can help your child understand the material and improve their grades

Tutoring can be extremely beneficial for students who are struggling in school. A tutor can provide one-on-one attention that can help a child to better understand their material. Additionally, tutors can identify areas where a child may need extra help and target those areas specifically. As a result, tutoring can lead to improved grades and a better understanding of the material.

In addition, tutoring can also help to build confidence and give students the tools they need to succeed in school. For these reasons, tutoring can be an excellent investment for any parent who wants their child to succeed in school.

3. With improved grades comes increased confidence

There’s nothing like the feeling of acing a test or getting a good grade on a project. That sense of accomplishment can give your confidence level a boost, making you feel like you can take on anything. When it comes to school, confidence is important.

Students who believe in themselves are more likely to put forth the effort needed to succeed. They’re also less likely to give up when faced with challenging material. So, if you’re looking to give your child a leg up in school, help them develop their confidence. Encourage them to see mistakes as learning opportunities and praise their efforts, rather than their results. In time, they’ll start to see the benefits in the form of improved grades. And who knows? They might just surprise themselves with what they’re capable of achieving.

how tutoring can increase self-confidence

4. Tutoring can also help your child develop better study habits that they can take with them throughout their academic career

While good study habits are important for all students, they are especially critical for those who struggle with academic subjects. Tutoring can help your child develop the organizational and time management skills necessary to succeed in school.

In addition, a tutor can work with your child to create a personalized study plan that takes into account their unique learning style. As a result, tutoring can not only improve your child’s grades in the short-term, but it can also help them develop the skills they need to succeed in school and beyond.

5. A tutor can provide one-on-one attention that your child may not receive in a large classroom setting

One of the benefits of working with a tutor is that your child will receive targeted attention. In a large classroom, it can be difficult for a teacher to give each student the individual attention they need. However, a tutor can work with your child one-on-one to identify their strengths and weaknesses. This enables the tutor to focus on areas that need improvement while also celebrating your child’s successes. As a result, your child will have a more well-rounded educational experience and will be better prepared for future success.

6. This individualized attention can help your child feel more comfortable asking questions and participating in class

One of the key benefits of homeschooling is the individualized attention that your child will receive. This can help your child feel more comfortable asking questions and participating in class. When kids are in a traditional classroom setting, they may feel like they have to compete with their classmates for the teacher’s attention. But when you homeschool your child, you can tailor the lesson plans to your child’s specific needs and learning style. This way, your child will get the customized attention that he or she needs to thrive academically.

Better study habits and tutoring

In addition, homeschooling can also provide your child with a more supportive and nurturing environment. This can further boost your child’s confidence and willingness to participate in class. ultimately, homeschooling can provide numerous benefits for both you and your child.

Conclusion

If your child is struggling in school, it can be hard for them to feel confident. Tutoring can help improve their grades and with that comes increased confidence. Tutoring can also help your child develop better study habits that they can take with them throughout their academic career. A tutor provides one-on-one attention which helps the child feel more comfortable asking questions and participating in class.

Soil as the Foundation of a Healthy Earth

By | | , ,
2 Comments

A special day, a day to reflect on how critical and important the soil is for everyone on the planet. Soil is a life-giving and a life-sustaining component of all our environmental ecosystems. Yet most people look at soil with disgust, thinking it is just dirt, acting as if it’s the dirtiest component of the natural world.  I beg to differ and will set out information to inform our readers of just how crucial soil is to our very existence.

importance of soil

Soil is so critical in our survival. It controls the food security of the planet. It ensures the sustainability of the earth. All food sources begin in our soil. Therefore, it is critical that humans protect, care and improve soil ecosystems. First, there is the need to raise awareness of just how critical soil is to our existence and our total dependence on the soil. Then there is an urgent need to manage the soil and improve the quality of soil. Finally, there is the need to protect the soil from being inundated and buried beneath urban sprawl and expansion.

There are 18 nutrients, both macro- and micro-nutrients essential for a healthy soil to ensure robust, healthy plant growth, and subsequently healthy human beings.  But soil degradation leads to a loss of these macro- and micro- nutrients. The result is that nutrient-deficient soil produces nutrient-deficient plants which results in nutrient-deficient human beings. That is you and me. At present, the UN estimates that 2 billion people suffer from micro-deficient nutrition.

food security in lebanon

The photosynthesis cycle requires atmospheric carbon, oxygen and hydrogen for the process of photosynthesis to occur within the plants. But within the soil, there is also need for significant quantities of the macro-nutrients: nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous, along with carbon. These nutrients are key for all plant production. In addition, there are also micro-nutrients required but in much lower quantities that vary depending on the crops being grown. These micronutrients include boron, calcium, chlorine and copper, iron, magnesium, molybdenum and manganese, sodium, silicon and sulfur and lastly zinc.

This is quite an array of chemical elements. The environment has to promote plant growth. This is achieved through photosynthesis which in turns,  enable plant growth. This process involves the metabolism of carbohydrates and the movement of starches. The photosynthates formed in the leaves then need to move to fruiting portions of the plant and to the reproductive organs.

As well as promoting plant growth above the ground, the plant has to establish strong and robust root formation and growth. This can also include the formation of nitrogen-fixing nodules on the root infrastructure of legumes. In addition, the plant root structure stimulates soil microbial activity. All the while, the plant develops the ability to fight disease, as well as build resistance to disease.

Enzyme activities are critical in the growth processes. They require nutrients to achieve this functionality. Such nutrients such as magnesium aid the plant in using iron and potassium. Sulfur and molybdenum are also responsible for various enzyme activity. Magnesium increases the availability of phosphorous and calcium.  In addition, the plant needs to keep respiration at the lowest possible levels for sustained growth while increasing water-use efficiency so as to combat drier periods.

The actual process of fruit formation is critical. The state of maturity needs to be reached efficiently and quickly, while achieving good quality of flesh and flavor, and adequate juice quantities. Accompanying all this is seed formation of good quality and number for future plant production.

lebanon-food-security

The nutritious foods then pass to the human and complete the various health pathways within the human body to ensure fit and healthy persons.

The question is what can we do to ensure healthy soils are producing healthy food products? There are a number of steps, we as caretakers of the natural environment can act upon. First and foremost, we need to revert to a traditional farming technique of crop rotation while ensuring that we reduce all potential forms of soil erosion. The agricultural industry needs to increase and maintain the organic content of the soils while reducing the dependence on artificial fertilizers.

The aggressive practice of deep tillage of soils is also harmful. Farming practice needs to move towards a shallower tillage approach, and also strive to keep soils under various forms of coverage so that wind erosion is minimised. The final step is to protect agricultural lands from being absorbed into urban development. Now that you understand just how complex and critical the soil ecosystem is, you can now start to take action to protect the soils while they carry out such essential work on our planet.

Advancing Circular Economy in Water Management in Algeria: From Wastewater to Strategic Resource

By | | ,
Leave a comment

As climate change accelerates water scarcity across the Mediterranean and the Sahara, countries are compelled to rethink their approach to water management. The traditional linear model of extracting freshwater, using it once, and discharging it into the environment is no longer viable in regions where rainfall is decreasing, aquifers are overexploited, and agricultural demand continues to grow [1-2]. In Algeria, this challenge is especially acute – declining annual precipitation, high evapo-transpiration rates, rapid population growth, and urban expansion place tremendous pressure on limited freshwater resources. At the same time, industrial and agricultural demands continue to rise, further stressing conventional water supply systems. These dynamics create an urgent need to adopt innovative approaches that integrate environmental, social, and economic considerations, while ensuring long-term water security [3].

water management and circular economy

Globally, water governance is evolving toward a circular economy model, in which treated wastewater is no longer considered waste but a valuable resource. This approach emphasizes the reuse of water for multiple applications, the optimization of resource efficiency, and the protection of ecosystems. When treated wastewater is reused safely, it can support agriculture, industrial operations, urban landscaping, aquifer recharge, and even potable water supply under strict regulatory and treatment conditions. Countries such as Spain, Singapore, and Australia provide concrete examples of how circular water management, coupled with robust monitoring and public engagement, can significantly reduce pressure on freshwater sources, increase resilience to drought, and promote sustainable urban and agricultural development [4-5].

Algeria, one of the most water-stressed countries in North Africa, is increasingly embracing this approach. Facing declining precipitation, rising energy and financial costs of conventional water supply, and rapid demographic growth in urban areas, the government recognizes the strategic importance of treated wastewater as a reliable, locally available water source. Recent announcements in Algerian media indicate the launch of a national program to upgrade dozens of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) with tertiary treatment, beginning with major facilities in Algiers, Oran, Tlemcen, Constantine, Tipasa, and Ouargla. The objective is to produce high-quality reclaimed water suitable for irrigation, reduce pressure on overexploited groundwater, and expand the reuse perimeter, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions [6].

The principle of a circular water economy is that water can and must be used more than once. Treated wastewater, when properly processed, can serve multiple functions: supporting agriculture, industry, urban landscaping, and aquifer recharge, and under certain conditions, potable applications. Advanced technologies such as membrane filtration, ultraviolet (UV) disinfection, and AI-driven smart irrigation systems enhance the safety, efficiency, and adaptability of water reuse, even under harsh climatic conditions. International experience demonstrates that with clear standards, rigorous monitoring, and public engagement, reclaimed water can achieve high acceptance and contribute significantly to national water security [7].

Algeria’s wastewater infrastructure provides a strong foundation for circular water management. Over the past two decades, more than 200 WWTPs have been constructed, serving urban agglomerations, industrial zones, and peri-urban areas. While some plants operate below design capacity due to operational and maintenance constraints, collectively they represent a substantial national asset. Treated wastewater, particularly when upgraded with tertiary or quaternary treatment, can reduce pressure on fossil groundwater, support local agriculture, and stabilize food systems in drought-prone regions such as Biskra, Oued Souf, Adrar, and Timimoun [8].

wastewater treatment plant

Algeria has also established a regulatory and normative framework for water reuse. Executive Decrees 06‑141 and 07‑149 define pollutant discharge limits and conditions for wastewater reuse, while an interministerial decree issued in 2012 specifies eligible crops and water quality requirements, including microbiological and physico-chemical parameters. National standards, such as NA 17683 for treated wastewater and NA 17671 for sludge reuse, define water classes based on E. coli concentrations and other parameters, ranging from Class A (≤10 CFU/100 mL) to Class D (≤10,000 CFU/100 mL). These standards provide a technical and legal foundation for safe reuse, protecting public health, agricultural productivity, and environmental integrity. However, many WWTPs still operate below optimal treatment levels, monitoring systems remain fragmented, and public confidence in water reuse, particularly for agriculture, is limited [9].

A concrete example of water reuse in Algeria comes from the Boumerdes region. The Boumerdes WWTP, serving the coastal city of Zemmouri, supplies approximately 160 m³/day of treated wastewater to the municipality. The water is primarily used for non-potable municipal applications, such as street cleaning and urban landscaping, while plans are underway to expand agricultural reuse in nearby farmland. Long-term agricultural studies in the Corso-Boumerdes area indicate that treated wastewater, combined with sewage sludge, has been applied on farmland since 2002, demonstrating safe irrigation practices under local conditions. Farmers apply sludge annually (15–20 tons per hectare) and irrigate with treated wastewater via drip systems from May to October, compensating for water shortages while maintaining soil health.

Soil monitoring has not revealed harmful accumulation of heavy metals or contaminants, supporting the safety and sustainability of reuse in this context. This example illustrates that even relatively modest volumes of reclaimed water can provide substantial benefits for both municipal and agricultural needs while offering an opportunity for replication in other regions [10].

Pilot projects like WAWARIA in the Saharan region further demonstrate the operational and strategic potential of circular water management in Algeria. WAWARIA is designed to evaluate the safe valorization of treated wastewater for irrigation under extreme climatic conditions. The project compares crop performance and environmental safety under three irrigation regimes: groundwater, secondary-treated wastewater, and tertiary-polished water using membrane filtration. Conducted on nine greenhouse plots, the project monitors crop yields, soil quality, heavy metals, and organic compounds. Advanced infrastructure, including intelligent drip irrigation and automated monitoring, ensures precise evaluation during harsh Saharan winter conditions. Crops such as tomatoes, potatoes, beetroot, lettuce, cucumber, and beans are grown under identical conditions to rigorously measure the effects of irrigation water quality on productivity and environmental safety [11].

Early results from WAWARIA show that membrane-polished wastewater produces crop yields comparable to groundwater irrigation. Secondary-treated wastewater, when applied through controlled drip irrigation, also supports safe and productive cultivation. Soil analyses indicate no harmful accumulation of heavy metals or organic contaminants, confirming that treated wastewater, when managed according to standards and monitored systematically, can be safely integrated into agricultural systems. Intelligent irrigation minimizes water loss, optimizes nutrient distribution, and increases water-use efficiency, while the project builds confidence among farmers, agronomists, and engineers regarding the reliability of treated wastewater.

efficient irrigation methods

Spray irrigation has higher efficiency than traditional methods.

These projects illustrate both the technical feasibility and strategic importance of wastewater reuse in Algeria. By providing water for urban landscaping, municipal cleaning, and agriculture, reuse reduces pressure on overexploited aquifers, enhances food security, and enables the sustainable development of peri-urban and arid areas. Moreover, it contributes to socio-economic development by creating technical jobs in water quality monitoring, irrigation management, and environmental engineering. Lessons from Boumerdes, WAWARIA, and other initiatives highlight the importance of integrating regulatory standards, long-term monitoring, and stakeholder engagement to ensure safe and socially acceptable water reuse.

Law 25-02 on waste management and the circular economy, adopted in 2025, reinforces these efforts. It mandates that public utilities, municipalities, and industrial operators develop valorization plans, produce reusable water, and integrate reuse into economic and environmental strategies. Financial incentives, including subsidies for reuse infrastructure and support for climate-smart irrigation projects, encourage innovation and investment. At the same time, penalties for environmentally harmful practices help enforce compliance. By linking circular water management to local economic development, the law fosters green jobs and strengthens community participation, ensuring that the transition toward a circular water economy generates tangible socio-economic benefits [12].

Taken together, the regulatory framework, technological innovation, and operational experiences provided by projects like WAWARIA and Boumerdes position Algeria to transform treated wastewater into a cornerstone of its water strategy. Expanding reclaimed water programs, upgrading treatment plants, strengthening monitoring networks, and investing in intelligent irrigation systems can convert water scarcity from a constraint into a strategic opportunity. This approach not only secures water and food systems in arid and semi-arid regions but also promotes sustainable urban development, soil restoration, and climate adaptation.

Conclusion

Algeria’s evolving wastewater reuse initiatives demonstrate the practical and strategic benefits of circular water management. The combination of regulatory standards, advanced treatment technologies, and field-based pilot projects provides a roadmap for safe, effective, and scalable reuse of treated wastewater. The Boumerdes example shows that even modest reuse volumes can have meaningful impacts when managed properly, while WAWARIA illustrates the potential for scaling such practices to harsher environments.

By integrating reuse into national planning, monitoring, and policy frameworks, Algeria can safeguard its water resources, enhance agricultural productivity, and build resilience against the impacts of climate change, turning environmental challenges into sustainable development opportunities.

References

[1] Lindsay C. Stringer; Alisher Mirzabaev, Tor A. Benjaminsen, Rebecca M.B. Harris, Mostafa Jafari, Tabea K. Lissner,Nicola Stevens,Cristina Tirado-von der Pahlen. Climate change impacts on water security in global drylands Lindsay C. Stringer. One Earth. Volume 4, Issue 6,18 June 2021, Pages 851-864.

[2], Silvia R. Santos Da Silva, Fernando Miralles-Wilhelm, Son Kim, Page Kyle, Yaling Liu, Chris Vernon, Alison Delgado, Jae Edmonds, Leon Clarke. Impacts of water scarcity on agricultural production and electricity generation in the Middle East and North Africa Front. Environ. Sci., 27 February 2023

Sec. Interdisciplinary Climate Studies.Volume 11 – 2023 https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1082930

[3 ] Ali Rahmani Salah Eddine, Brahim C. Water Supply Prediction for the Next 10 Years in Algeria: Risks and Challenges. Irrigation & Drainage Systems Engineering. 2017 06(03)

[4] Khaled Oabaideen, Nabila Shehata,Enas Taha Sayed,Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem, Mohamed S.Mahmoud, A.G.Olabi. The role of wastewater treatment in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs) and sustainability guideline. Energy Nexus Volume 7,September 2022, 100112.

[5] Farfán Chilicaus, G.C.; Cruz Salinas, L.E.; Silva León, P.M.; Lizarzaburu Aguinaga, D.A.; Vera Zelada, P.; Vera Zelada, L.A.; Luque Luque, E.O.; Licapa Redolfo, R.; Ramos Farroñán, E.V. Circular Economy and Water Sustainability: Systematic Review of Water Management Technologies and Strategies (2018–2024). Sustainability 2025, 17, 6544. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su17146544

[6] Rezzoug Cherif, Merzougui Touhami, Abdelhadi Bouchiba. Wastewater treatment technologies and challenges in Algeria and their future prospects. Discover Sustainability August 2025; 6(1), DOI:10.1007/s43621-025-01731-7

[7] Abbaszadegan, M.; Alum, A.; Kitajima, M.; Fujioka, T.; Matsui, Y.; Sano, D.; Katayama, H. Water Reuse—Retrospective Study on Sustainable Future Prospects. Water 2025, 17, 789. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/w17060789

[8] Hanane Abdelmoumene, Faiza Lallam, Mostefa Lallam, Maamar Boumediene. Assessment of the operational status of a wastewater treatment plant using the FAHP Process: case study of the Ain El Houtz WWTP in Algeria. Vol. 5 No. 2 (2024): Studies in Engineering and Exact Sciences, Curitiba, v.5, n.2, 2024.

[9] www.joradp.dz

[10] Neggache, N. (2017). La réutilisation des eaux usées épurées de la station d’épuration de Zemmouri (Master’s thesis, Université M’Hamed Bougara, Boumerdès).

[11] https://www.wur.nl/upload_mm/a/9/f/0e8ad9c2-0e7f-4617-b341-c112258ed701_wawaria.pdf

[12] https://cntpp.dz/

سوق الطاقة المتجدد في منطقة الشرق الأوسط

By | | ,
3 Comments

تعد منطقة الشرق الأوسط من أفضل المناطق حول العالم للإستفادة من موارد الطاقة الشمسية وطاقة الرياح. إذ وفقا لتقرير (إيرينا) الأخير، فإن منطقة الشرق الأوسط ستحظى بإستثمارات في مشاريع الطاقة المتجددة ب 35مليار دولار وذلك مع حلول عام 2020م. ومؤخرا حظي قطاع الطاقة المتجددة بأسعار تنافسية لتركيب الألواح الشمسية الكهروضوئية ومراوح الرياح.

التطورات الإقليمية

وعلى صعيد منطقة الشرق الأوسط، تبرز المملكة المغربية كمثل رائد يحتدى به في تطوير المشاريع الشمسية لتوليد الطاقة الكهربائية. حيث جعلت الحكومة المغرية تحقيق 2 جيجا من الطاقة الشمسية و 2 جيجا واط من طاقة الرياح هدفا لها بحلول العام 2020م. ويطلق على مشروع الطاقة الشمسية في المغرب إسم (نور). ويأتي بعد المغرب دول عربية أخرى شهدت تقدما واضحا في مشاريع الطاقة الشمسية مثل الأردن ومصر. وفي دول منطقة الخليج العربي، نجد هناك إهتمام جاد لتطوير مشاريع للطاقة الشمسية. ففي الإمارات العربية المتحدة، في العاصمة ابوظبي، محطة (شمس) للطاقة الشمسية المركزة التي تم تدشينها عام 2014م، بقدرة 100 ميغاواط. وفي مدينة دبي تم الإنتهاء من 13 ميغاواط كمرحلة أولى من المحطة الشمسية. أما في المملكة العربية السعودية، فقد أخذت الطاقة الشمسية وطاقة الرياح حصتها من إهتمام رؤية السعودية 2030م، التي أكدت على ضرورة إعتماد خيار الطاقة المتجددة لتنويع مصادر الطاقة في السعودية.

نعمة الطاقة المتجددة

تتعدد مزايا الطاقة المتجددة التي يمكن لدول منطقة الشرق الأوسط الإستفادة منها في أشكال عديدة منها: أمن الطاقة، تحسين نوعية الهواء، والمساهمة في الحد من إنبعاثات الغازات الدفيئة الملوثة في الهواء، فرص العمل و تحقيق للأمن المائي الغذائي.

ويعزز وفرة مصادر الطاقة المتجددة على مدار العام من جدوى نشرها في منطقة الشرق الأوسط، وأيضا ساعد إنخفاض أسعار تكنلوجيا الطاقة الشمسية الكهروضوئية إلى زيادة الإعتماد عليها فمثلا: سجل إنخفاض تكاليف توليد الطاقة المتجددة في مشروع دبي الشمسي لمحمد بن راشد آل مكتوم إلى 5,85 سنت أمريكي لكل كيلوواط ساعة، حيث تعتبر من أدنى المعدلات في الكلفة حول العالم.

تأثير الإنخفاض في الأسعار

سيكون للإنخفاض المتسارع الأثر الكبير في حياة عشرات الملايين من الناس الذين مازلوا يفتقرون إلى إمدادات رخيصة وحديثة للطاقة. حيث سيكون لخفض التكاليف الدور الكبير في مساعدة دول الشرق الأوسط ودول مجلس التعون الخليجي خاصة، لتحقيق هدف التحول نحو مصادر الطاقة المتجددة وبالتالي الحد من الإعتماد على الوقود الأحفوري لتوليد الكهرباء وتحلية مياه البحر. وسيساعد الإنخفاض السعري كذلك، الأسواق الناشئة في الدول النامية لتلبية الطلب على المتزايد للطاقة في دولها.

الاتجاهات الجديدة

توفر تقنيات خارج الشبكة للطاقة الشمسية فرصة ممتازة لنشر الطاقة النظيفة خصوصا في المناطق النائية والبعيدة عن الشبكة الرئيسة. حيث ستضمن التغطية خارج الشبكة للمناطق النائية من الحصول على طاقة نظيفة وموثوقة ورخيصة وستساعد في تغيير حياة الملايين في الدول النامية حول العالم.

وسيساهم المضي في تطوير بطاريات تخزين الطاقة من التوسع في إعتماد مشاريع الطاقة الشمسية، والتوسع في غعتمادها كمصدر متجدد وذو كلفة معقولة. وتتصدر شركات عالمية في البحث والتطوير في مجال تقنيات تخزين الطاقة مثل شركتي تسلا و نيسان، حيث سيساعد تخزين الطاقة إلى التغلب على تحدي التقطع في مصادر الكاقة المتجددة بكافة أشكالها.

وتعد تقنية الطاقة الشمسية المركزة إحدى التقنيات الشمسية المناسبة لدول منطقة الشرق الأوسط، خصوصا فيما يتعلق بتحلية مياه البحر التي ستقلل من هدر إحراق الوقود الأحفوري في عمليات التحلية. حيث توفر هذه التقنية إمدادات مستقرة للطاقة بشكل مستمر من محطات تحلية المياه وستساهم التطورات التقني السريع من إزدياد الإهتمام بخيار الطاقة الشمسية المركزة في منطقة الشرق الأوسط.

مصاعب تواجه إعتماد الطاقة الشمسية

تواجه الطاقة الشمسية في منطقة الشرق الأوسط عدد من التحديات منها: غياب الإطار التنظيمي القوي و إرتفاع الرسوم الجمركية وغياب الدعم المؤسسي للطاقة الشمسية و إنخفاض المردود الإقتصادي نتيجة لعدد من العوامل مثل الدعم الكبير للنفط والغاز.
والجدير بالذكر أن قطاع الطاقة في منطقة الشرق الأوسط، يقبع تحت سيطرة الدولة والحكومة المركزية التي تحد من تنافسية منتجي الطاقة المستقلين و دخول القطاع الخاص من المستثمرين ومطوري المشاريع إلى الأسواق المحلية. وتتصدر الأردن والمغرب دول المنطقة في وجود الإطار التشريعي لدعم مشاريع الطاقة المتجددة تليها المملكة العربية السعودية ودولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة.

نصائح للمستثمرين الجدد في مشاريع الطاقة الشمسية

إن سوق الطاقة الشمسية في منطقة الشرق الأوسط، يعد معقدا نظرا لطبيعة هيكلة سوق الكهرباء ولذلك تنشأ تحديات لاتعد ولا تحصى في كل بلد. لذلك ينبغي على الدول التي تطمح بالتوسع في الإسستفادة من مصدر الطاقة الشمسية، أن تعمل على البنية التحتية و سهولة الوصول إلى الشبكة و إعتماد خطط التراخيص بشكل واضح وشفاف و إعتماد بيانات الأرصاد الجوية ذات الجودة العالية وقضايا أخرى تتعلق بتحسين تقنيات الألواح الشمسية.

ترجمة

إيمان أمان
متخصصة وباحثة في شؤون الطاقة وتغير المناخ

تكاتف المجتمع القطري لإعلاء مبادرات إعادة التدوير

By | |
1 Comment

الحالة الراهنة للاهتمامات البيئية بدوله قطر تبشر بالرغبه من قبل الحكومات الوطنية وغيرها من المؤسسات, والتي دوما ما تؤيد إعلانيا المبادرات الكثيرة للاهتمام بالبيئة. ولكن الحالة االفعلية لا تنم علي الالتزام بهذا العمل. والموضوع السابق نشره بعنوان " المبادرات البيئية في الشرق الاوسط- بين التحديات والحلول", قد القي الضوء علي بعض هذه الثغرات الموجودة ما بين الرغبات والواقع. ولكنه لم يقدم وصفا مفصلا لما يدعم هذا الاتجاه والحلول الممكنة.

وبالتالي تسعي المقاله هنا الي التعمق في مؤسسات الدوله والمجتمعات المدنية بدوله قطر لتقوم بشكل تعاوني علي سد هذه الثغرات وحقن المزيد من التدهورات البيئية, وخاصا فيما يتعلق بإدارة اعادة تدوير المخلفات. واعتقد ان النجاح الحقيقي يتحقق من خلال رفع التوعية في علاقة الفرد ببيئته وكيف يؤثر فيها ويتأثر بها. وهناك من المناطق صعبة الظروف, مع عدم وجود مياه صالحة للشرب ولا أراضي قابله للاستصلاح, وبالرغم من ذلك مطلوب ان يحافظ المكان علي الدورة الهيدرولوجية. فهي بالفعل مناطق تمثل خطوة علي بقاء الدولة.

معركة شاقة ولكن ضرورية

يشعرالافراد بالدوله, سواء مقيمين او زوار لدول مجلس التعاون الخليجي وخاصا لدوله غنية بالنفط مثل قطر, باوجه القصور في مبادرات إعادة التدوير الحالية بالمنطقة.وكشخص زار البلد في ثلاث مناسبات مختلفة استطيع ان اقول لكم بأنني قد لمسات مستويات عالية ومنخفضة لاعادة تدوير الاوعيه ولكن دون جدوي, باستثناء عدد قليل ممن يقع في المدينة التعليمية.

وقد يتصور الفرد ان هذا التنافر استثنائي قادم من فرط التنبيه في واشنطن –امريكا, حيث عادة ما يتم وضع القمامة والعبوات  القابلة لاعادة التدوير معا في الشوارع والمباني.  وما زاد من تكدري الشخصي هو تباعد الاتصال بين المستوي العال للمعيشة, ومستوي المعرفة لإعادة التدوير علي نطاق واسع وحقائقه و عواقبه في المجتمع.علي سبيل المثال, في العام الماضي كان هناك الكثير من التشويق المحيط باعلانات عن الاصلاحات البيئية القادمة في يوليو تموز عام 2014. ولكن يبدو انها لم تؤتي ثمارها المرجوه.

يرتبط بامر اعادة التدوير ظهور بعض العوائق لبرامج اعادة التدويروعوائق المبادرات البيئية: البيروقراطية, اجندة الاعمال وقيود الميزانية كلها تعتبر من التحديات والعوائق التي ترتبط بتأسيس ونجاح منظومة اعادة تدوير. وسبب دائم الارتباط بالميزانية والمصاريف التي تكبل الدوله اكثر من طاقتها.

ولنكن منصفين في هذا الامر. فيجب الاعتراف ان جزء كبير من هذه القضايا يرجع الي من هم ليسوا من اهل البلد اي الوافدين. ولكن لا يجب القول ان هذا عذرا للتخلي عن المسؤلية. فان نسبة 6.8% من الناتج المحلي سوف تكون اولوية لدعم مصروفات كاس العالم والمقرر اقامتها في قطر عام 2022 باضافة الي صادرات النفط والغاز قد وضعت بالفعل مزيد من الضغوط علي منظومة البيئية والتي هي هاشة بالفعل. وسيكون نيجة لذلك ظهور اكثر للمخلفات المنزلية والتجارية. ولا يستلزم الامر القاء المزيد من الخوف للوضع الحالي, ولكن القضية هنا مباشرة, وهي زيادة اعداد المقيمين بدوله قطر ينتج عنها زيادة المخلفات لكل من القطاعات المنزليه والتجاريه. وكما نوهنا مسبقا بواسطة EcoMENA ,المقالة بواسطة Surya Suresh ان البلد تمتلك حاليا منشأه واحدة للنفايات الصلبة في مسيعيد, وثلاثة مدافن صحية للنفايات المتخصصة. والتي تتطلب زيادة اعدادها بزيادة القانطين للبلد.

الحلول الممكنة: حلول فردية وجماعية

ونظرا لبطئ استجابة الدوله للتأخير المستمر لمشاكل إعادة التدوير والقضايا المستقبلية الناجمة عن ذلك, فيجب ان يكون سؤال القارئ الان هو ماذا يمكننا القيام به لعبور هذه المشكله؟. فعلي المستوي الشخصي لابد من تحفيز وتشجيع سكان البلد بتثقيف انفسهم بالوضع والحالة الراهنة للمبادرات, وحصر كامل لكم المخلفات الناتجة يوميا وحصر اماكن تواجدها. ويقدم EcoMENA كثير من المعلومات المفيدة والتي تسهل علي الشخص البسيط فهم وادارك الموقف.

والنقطة الاخيره لعمل مخزون شخصي من المعلومات, هو زيادة التوعية والحد من تأثيرالشخص علي البيئة. وهناك امثله من تجارب شخصية رايتها بنفسي في كثير من الاماكن, وهي تبديل الحقائق البلاستيكية في السوبر ماركت بشنط اخري تحمل علي الظهر وتكون من خامات قابله لاعادة التدوير. وكذلك عبوات التخزين والتي من الممكن ان تكون من الزجاج حتي يسهل اعادة استخدامها وتنظيفها جيدا بين استعمال والاخر. ولكني سابدا بنفسي ثم اصدقائي وعائلتي بالنظر باسلوب ايجابي واكثر وعيا بيئيا ونسعي الي تعزيز السلوك الجيد.

علاوة علي ذلك, قد يكون من المفيد للمجتمع ككل لبدء مناقشة موضوع اعادة التدوير وعدم الانتظار فقط لاجهزة الدولة لمعالجة القضايا. ويمكن البدء بذلك علي مستوي العديد من اهل البلد الاصليين وهم في الغالب الاكثر دراية من غيرهم: مكان عملهم, مساكنهم او الحي القانطين به. ومن المحتمل مناقشة زيادة التكلفه لانشاء منظومة اكثر كفاءة مع مجتمع اكثر حماسة ووعي بيئي.

طبيعة الامم هي التي تحدد ملامح الكيان ورد الفعل المتوقع لاي مشكله تواجه هذه الامه. وفي دوله قطر هناك بعض المؤسسات مثل مجلس المباني الخضراء بقطر, وقادة قطر الخضراء. وهذه المؤسسات تقدم حلول ومعلومات وخدمات تدريبية التي يمكن ان تساعد في اقامة الحوارات الجماعية والحكومية. ومن دواعي التفائل تنظيم الشعب القطري لعملية دعم شعبية لمبادرات اخري, لاسيما التجربة الاولي سنة 2012 لبرنامج اعادة التدوير. والتي نأمل ان تكون بادره قوية لاستمرار العمل في منظومة اعادة التدوير. 

 

 ترجمه: هبة احمد مسلم- دكتور الهندسة البيئية. باحث في الشئون البيئية. معهد الدراسات والبحوث البيئية– جامعه عين شمس.

مدرس بالاكاديمية العربية للعلوم والتكنولوجيا والنقل البحري-  مصر.

التحكم في البيئة والطاقه داخل المباني.

هندسة الميكانيكة- وكيل محرك دويتس الالماني بمصر. 

للتواصل عبر hebamosalam2000@gmail.com   

 

Garbage Woes in Cairo

By | |
7 Comments

Cairo, being one of the largest cities in the world, is home to more than 15 million inhabitants. Like other mega-cities, solid waste management is a huge challenge for Cairo municipality and other stakeholders.  The city produces more than 15,000 tons of solid waste every day which is putting tremendous strain on city’s infrastructure. Waste collection services in Cairo are provided by formal as well as informal sectors. While local authorities, such as the Cairo Cleanliness and Beautification Authority (CCBA), form the formal public sector, the informal public sector is comprised of traditional garbage-collectors (the Zabbaleen).

Around 60 percent of the solid waste is managed by formal as well as informal waste collection, disposal or recycling operations while the rest is thrown on city streets or at illegal dumpsites. The present waste management is causing serious ecological and public health problems in Cairo and adjoining areas. Infact, disposal of solid waste in water bodies has lead to contamination of water supplies is several parts of the city. Waste collection in Cairo is subcontracted to ‘zabbaleen’, local private companies, multinational companies or NGOs. The average collection rate ranges from 0 percent in slums to 90% in affluent residential areas.

The Zabbaleen of Cairo

The Zabbaleen, traditional waste collectors of Cairo, have been responsible for creating one of the world’s most efficient and sustainable resource-recovery and waste-recycling systems. Since 1950’s, the Zabbaleen have been scouring the city of Cairo to collect waste from streets and households using donkey carts and pickup trucks. After bringing the waste to their settlement in Muqattam Village, also called Cairo’s garbage city, the waste is sorted and transformed into useful products like quilts, rugs, paper, livestock food, compost, recycled plastic products etc. After removing recyclable and organic materials, the segregated waste is passed onto various enterprises owned by Zabbaleen families.

A group of Zabbaleen boys at Muqattam Village

The Zabbaleen collect around 60 percent of the total solid waste generated in Cairo and recycle up to 80 percent of the collected waste which is much higher than recycling efficiencies observed in the Western world.  Over the last few decades, the Zabbaleen have refined their collection and sorting methods, built their own labor-operated machines and created a system in which every man, child and woman works.

Tryst with International Companies

In 2002, international waste management companies started operations in Egypt, particularly Cairo, Alexandria and Giza governorates, and the Zabbaleen were sidelined. However after ten years of participation in solid waste management in Cairo, their performance has been dismal. Infact, in 2009 Egyptian government acknowledged that solid waste management has deteriorated alarmingly after the entry of foreign companies.

The waste management situation in Greater Cairo has assumed critical proportions because of high population, increased waste generation and lack of waste collection infrastructure and disposal facilities. Garbage accumulation on streets, along highways and in waterways is a common sight. As a result of the bad performance of multinational private sector companies in SWM in Egypt during the last decade, the level of street cleanliness deteriorated and the pollution resulting from open-burning of trash increased significantly.

Moreover, the Zabbaleen suffered loss of livelihood after the entry of foreign solid waste management companies due to restricted access to their main asset. The mass slaughtering of pigs in 2009, after fears of swine flu epidemic, has lead to accumulation of organic wastes in many parts of the city.

The waste management situation in Cairo is at a serious juncture and concerted efforts are required to improve waste collection and disposal services across the city. The involvement of Zabbaleen is essential to the success of any waste management plan and the Egyptian government must involve all stake-holders is putting together a sustainable waste management for Cairo.

A Homeowner’s Guide To Home Solar System

By | | ,
Leave a comment

As energy prices continue to rise, more homeowners are becoming more curious about solar power. If you’re thinking about going solar, it’s important to do ample research about a home solar system.

To help you get started, this comprehensive guide shares the basics about the home solar system, its benefits, and things to consider when planning to install one.

guide to home solar system

Understanding Solar Energy System

Solar power systems are structures that capture usable energy generated from the sun. They can provide solar power to homes instead of relying on your local electricity provider. Technically speaking, solar energy is captured using a photovoltaic solar panel system.

Each solar panel consists of a glass casing unit, a metal frame, a layer of silicon cells, and several wirings to transfer the electric current. The metal frame and glass casing unit house and protect the silicon cells against weather conditions. These silicon cells are non-metal elements responsible for absorbing sunlight and converting it into usable electricity.

When sunlight hits the panel’s silicon cell, the light causes electrons in the cell to move. This initiates the flow of electric current, also known as direct current (DC) electricity. The wiring captures this DC electricity and feeds it into a solar inverter.

Since most appliances don’t run on direct current, a solar inverter is needed to change the electricity output. The solar inverter converts DC into alternate current (AC) through a transformer.

Homeowners with average DIY skills can mount and install small-scale solar panels. However, if you’re considering powering your home with a full solar system, it’s recommended to choose a solar installer.

Hiring reliable solar installation professionals like Impact Energy Home Solar Installation can ensure that your solar energy system is installed correctly according to local building requirements. In addition, these professionals have the necessary equipment and tools to handle all your solar installation needs.

Why Switch To Solar Energy?

Switching to solar energy comes with numerous benefits. Here are some of them:

1. It Helps You Save On Energy Bills

One of the biggest benefits of switching to solar power is that it helps reduce or completely eliminate your energy bills. Installing a solar panel means you generate your own electricity. Hence, you become less reliant on your local electricity provider, ultimately saving money on your monthly energy bill.

According to experts, the average home equipped with solar panels can save up to 90% on the monthly electric bill. However, keep in mind that this percentage still depends on several factors, including your electricity consumption, home size, solar system size, and location.

Nevertheless, as energy prices keep increasing, solar energy becomes a more viable alternative against rising prices. Since you’ll be generating energy from the sun, you don’t need to rely on expensive power from your local grid.

Also Read: Explore the Power of 12V 100Ah Battery for Off-Grid Adventures

2. It Contributes To Long-Term Sustainability

Solar power is considered a sustainable and clean source of energy. Opting for solar installation can help minimize the production of carbon, pollutants, and other greenhouse gases. It also helps lower your carbon footprint, contributing to a cleaner environment.

Furthermore, unlike other traditional sources of energy, solar power is renewable. This means you won’t ever run out of it as long as the sun shines.

3. It Has The Potential For Extra Income

Aside from its energy bill-saving benefit, installing a home solar system may also help you earn extra income. In the US and most parts of the world, there are several solar incentives you can avail of, such as solar energy credits and net metering. These two initiatives can help you earn bill credits and cash when your solar energy system generates electricity.

A solar credit allows you to get compensated for the electricity your solar energy system produces. Meanwhile, net metering enables you to sell excess energy produced by your solar energy system to your community’s power grid, helping you earn extra cash.

You can check with your local government if they’re offering any of these incentives and if you’re eligible. These incentives can provide you with immediate and long-term returns from your solar investments.

4. Low in Maintenance

Solar panels are low maintenance. Depending on the surrounding area and your location, you only need to clean your panels a couple of times yearly. Also, traditional solar energy systems have no moving parts, so you don’t have to worry about wear and tear.

Hence, you only need regular maintenance inspections on wiring and parts, checking for damages to ensure maximum efficiency. Besides, most reliable solar manufacturers offer extended warranties of 20 years or more to protect you against accidental damages or faulty products.

Things To Consider For Home Solar System Installation

As you can see, solar energy systems can provide you with numerous enticing benefits. If you want to install a solar energy system for your home, here are four factors to consider.

1. Find A Solar Expert

Home solar energy installation is a complex process. Thus, you want to find an expert who can help you navigate the complexity of solar installation and make the switch successful. However, with the increasing demand for expert solar installers, how do you choose the right one?

You can start by asking for references from relatives, friends, or co-workers who recently installed solar energy systems. Alternatively, a simple Google search can provide you with a list of solar installers in your area. You can also use online tools to help you find solar installation companies.

how to maintain your solar panel

Once you have a list, start narrowing down your options by asking them about their qualifications, experience, and credentials. Always ask for their proof of licenses and qualifications.

Furthermore, it’s essential to ensure the solar company is familiar with your local area, building permits, and interconnection processes. Moreover, it helps to ask about their warranties and insurance to protect you against technical issues once installed.

Additionally, it’s best to take the time to research online reviews about the company. You can also ask them for a list of references from previous clients in your area. This provides you with deeper insights into how the company works.

Consider narrowing down your options to three service providers. Plus, it’s best to ask for quotations for your solar installation to help you compare prices and services and find the right contractor for your needs.

2. Understand Your Energy Use

Performing an energy audit and understanding your energy consumption can help you determine the type and size of the solar system you need. In general, you can get the help of your chosen solar contractor for this.

You can take a look at your recent energy bills and determine your annual energy needs. Also, you can review every month of the year to help you identify your consumption trends. For instance, you may use more electricity to keep your home cool during the hot summer months of June through August.

Meanwhile, it also helps to think about your plans for the future. For instance, are you considering buying an electric car next year or building a new room? Such upgrades can affect your overall energy use, so keep them in mind when getting a home solar system.

3. Location

One of the most significant factors to consider when installing residential solar power systems is knowing how much sunlight your home can get. Since solar power systems rely on sunlight to generate energy, you must ensure that your home receives plenty of it for maximum performance.

But it doesn’t mean you have to live in a tropical or sunny location to make solar panels work for your home. Solar panels work well in most climates, even regions with less sunshine. Just don’t expect your solar energy system to be as effective as those in areas that receive the most sunlight.

In addition to your home’s location, it helps to consider nearby structures, including trees, towering condominiums, or even your home’s chimney. These structures can cast shade over your solar panel, reducing its efficiency.

On the other hand, your contractor can help you find the proper placement for your panels and how you can effectively optimize their output, regardless of your location.

4. Solar Placement

Speaking of placement, did you know that you have several options in terms of where you want to install your solar panels?

For most residential homes, rooftop panels are the most common installation placement. It provides the maximum amount of sunlight exposure while also clearing the curb of any potentially hazardous panels or wirings. However, there are several considerations when installing your solar systems on your rooftop.

If you have an older roof but have a vast open space in your backyard, you may consider a ground-mounted system instead. This placement is more applicable for rural homes with hectares of unused land. With a ground-mounted system, you can expand your solar energy system to accommodate your growing needs and provide better access to panels for maintenance.

Meanwhile, if ground space is minimal and your rooftop is out of the question, wall-mounted solar energy systems are a viable answer. If your home has a south-facing wall, you can install solar panels there to capture sunlight for a limited time.

It’s estimated that vertical solar panels can still generate at least 70% of energy. Also, wall-mounted panels are arguably more efficient during winter since the sun is much lower in the sky. Also, you don’t have to worry about snow accumulating on top of the panels, which can disrupt their efficiency.

While it may not be as efficient as other installation options, wall-mounted solar panels still allow you to harness the sun’s energy if both ground and roof installation aren’t suitable.

Takeaway

There’s no doubt that solar energy is the future. If you’re thinking of making the switch, this article has provided you with everything you need to know to make a well-informed decision and make the whole process easier.

Managing Sudden Water Shortage Expenses in MENA Communities: Lessons From International Households

By | | , ,
Leave a comment

Countries across the Middle East and North Africa live with some of the lowest freshwater availability per person. Several MENA countries receive less than 500 m³ of freshwater for one person each year. Reports from the FAO and UN Water show that climate patterns, higher temperatures, and population growth continue to put greater pressure on water systems.

When supply suddenly stops, even for a short time, families face unexpected expenses. They should pay more for repairs, bottled water, filtration, or temporary storage. Usually, people should deal with immediate costs for filters, delivered water, pump repairs, or small tanks.

a dry lake in a Gulf country

Below are practical ways households can try to control these costs, and what they can learn from places with similar problems.

Main Expenses During Sudden Water Shortages

When the supply drops, the same types of costs usually appear first, so families already know what to expect. Most expenses break down into the following groups:

  • Drinking water and filtration. When supply becomes unreliable, families buy more bottled water or start using home filters more often. Cartridges wear out more quickly, and some systems need cleaning or an additional filter stage. The World Health Organisation recommends 50–100 litres of water per person per day for basic needs
  • Pump strain and small repairs. Unsteady water pressure puts stress on pumps and valves, so leaks and worn parts are more common. Even a small repair can cost a lot, especially when it has to be done quickly.
  • Compact storage tanks. Many families install small tanks to hold water when it is available. So the final cost includes the tank, fitting work, pipes, and simple level controllers.
  • Delivered water in rural areas. When local wells or lines stop working, water delivery is the only option. According to the World Bank, trucking prices in remote areas can rise around 2–3 times during drought periods

How Households in MENA React

Families across the region usually try to secure a basic amount of water and keep home systems running until the supply returns.

In cities, people rely more on filtered and bottled water or on delivery services. Homeowners may also pay for pump repairs or tank cleaning. In rural or semi-rural areas, people depend more on local wells. The biggest expense here is maintaining the equipment. Another frequent cost is renting or buying tanks for the temporary storage of delivered water.

International Lessons That May Help MENA

Countries that regularly deal with drought offer useful examples of how households can respond to sudden shortages.

California (USA)

During dry periods, households often pay more for water, repair small pump issues, or install temporary filtration. Also, many people order delivered water for daily needs, especially in rural zones.

It becomes difficult to cover all expenses at the same time, so many American families handle unexpected costs by using an option for urgent budget gaps. This way, they can split the costs into affordable installments and manage them more effectively.

Australia

Many families keep small rainwater tanks for basic needs or rely on community filtration systems. Government programs note that even a modest tank can reduce the need for delivered water, and simple filters often cut extra expenses.

South Africa

Cape Town’s “Day Zero” showed how simple habits can help reduce financial pressure. Households reduce consumption, set up temporary tanks, and collect rainwater for everyday use. These steps helped families manage costs during severe water crises.

What MENA Can Use

Here are some low-cost choices that can noticeably reduce spending during outages:

  • Small tanks collect water during stable supply periods.
  • Medium-level filters make the dependence on bottled water a bit lower.
  • Tracking daily water use helps families understand their real needs.
  • Sharing the cost of pumps or filters in communities

Water Budget Planning

Here are two ways to plan a water budget correctly:

Short-term approach

Households usually check their filters, buy a couple of small containers, and calculate how much water they need for the next few days. In cities, delivery services help avoid last-minute stress. In private homes, a small box of spare pump parts often prevents emergency repairs.

Long-term investments

In areas where outages repeat, installing a 200–500 litre tank and a basic multi-stage filter helps to feel more stable. In rural areas, neighbours sometimes share wells and their maintenance.

Practical tips for households

Keeping a small reserve, replacing filters on time, using low-flow taps, and teaching simple saving habits usually help families stay prepared and less stressed.

FAQ

How much water should a household store?

Most official sources suggest having enough for a few days per family member. It’s better to prepare at least 2 liters (67.6 US fl oz) of water per person per day.

What expenses appear most often?

Bottled water, home filtration, pump repairs, and delivery services are among the expenses that most families typically face.

How to prepare for seasonal shortages?

Before a seasonal shortage begins, prepare a basic consumption plan, check equipment, and consider installing a small storage tank. This will help you prevent problems and get ready for these tough days without stress.

Which investments work best long term?

Consider medium-sized tanks and mid-range filters. They often help lower emergency spending.

Conclusion

Sudden water shortages put financial pressure on families across MENA. But we considered lessons from other regions that showed that with simple storage, filtration, and a bit of planning, households can manage these periods without a major increase in everyday costs.

Ethical and Religious Dilemmas Surrounding Stray Dogs and Cats in Jordan

By | | , ,
Leave a comment

The growing number of stray dogs and cats on the streets of Jordan poses an increasing risk to public health, quality of life, and public safety. Incidents of dog bites among schoolchildren are rising, alongside the spread of zoonotic diseases, while national legislation prohibits the culling of these animals. Islam, which strongly influences citizens’ perceptions and interactions with animals, emphasizes compassion towards them, creating significant ethical dilemmas.

Public frustration has led to cases of animal poisoning, prompting the Grand Mufti to issue a fatwa permitting the sterilization of aggressive animals. Although Islamic teachings uphold animals’ right to reproduce, distinctions are made between minor and major sins. Various sectors are currently working to expand the Animal Birth Control (ABC) program and are considering the establishment of a dedicated sanctuary for stray animals.

stray dogs in Amman

Introduction

The history of the dog reflects a long process of co-evolution with humans, characterized by continuous development, adaptation, and migration over thousands of years. Archaeological findings, including bones with gnaw marks from the Middle East and the Mediterranean, dated to approximately 14,000 years ago, indicate that the dog is the oldest domesticated animal. Certain species lived in human temples and were provided with generous meals, whereas cats were domesticated much later, around 10,000 years ago.

In Mesopotamia, hunting dogs were considered a status symbol and were employed in hunting and warfare. Some dogs even held religious roles, such as those associated with the goddess Gula in the temple of Ninisina. Throughout history, the role of dogs has evolved—from hunting and protection to companionship and labor in livestock farming and agriculture.

One example is the Canaan dog, also known as the Bedouin Sheepdog, which constitutes most dogs in Jordan. These dogs were renowned for their intelligence and were used in ancient societies as guard dogs, barking whenever Roman forces approached the region, thereby preventing invasions. Today, many specially trained breeds serve as loyal and diligent partners to law enforcement, assisting in narcotics detection, anti-smuggling operations, and search-and-rescue missions.

Cats (Felis catus) trace their origins to the Middle East as human companions in the fight against pests. However, their predatory nature has contributed to the extinction and decline of other species over time, as well as the spread of diseases such as toxoplasmosis, feline leukemia, and rabies. Despite being among humanity’s closest companions, dogs and cats still pose significant health risks.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 55,000 people die annually from rabies transmitted through dog bites, primarily from the estimated 200 million stray dogs worldwide. About 95% of these cases occur in Africa and Asia. Furthermore, the Middle Eastern climate facilitates the spread of diseases such as rabies, echinococcosis, and leishmaniasis, placing additional strain on healthcare systems.

Problem Description

Amman is home to approximately 200,000 stray dogs, in addition to an unknown number of cats. Stray dogs pose a direct threat to humans, particularly schoolchildren, through dog bites, while cats primarily contribute to disease transmission. Hospitals recorded 14,500 patients treated for dog bites in 2024 and 2025, a sharp increase compared to the previous year’s 7,000 cases. Cats also present an indirect risk by causing traffic accidents and spreading infectious diseases as they roam urban areas in search of shelter and food.

Although Jordanian legislation prohibits animal culling, cases of poisoning and other forms of cruelty have been reported, driven by public frustration and attempts to reduce animal populations. Following a fatal incident in which a schoolchild died from a dog attack, the Grand Mufti issued a fatwa permitting the shooting of aggressive dogs that pose a threat to human life. This ruling was misinterpreted as a general license to kill dogs, even those that posed no threat, which was not the intended directive.

To halt the shootings, the Greater Amman Municipality (GAM) introduced a dog sterilization program in 2017. Dogs were captured, vaccinated, sterilized by veterinarians, and tagged before being released back onto the streets. The program was implemented following the Grand Mufti’s guidance on Islamic permissibility. Generally, sterilization is considered sinful in Islam, as it alters the natural state of animals created by God and denies them the right to reproduce, which is part of life’s natural order. However, the fatwa weighed societal concerns and child safety against the rapid reproduction of stray dogs, their right to life, and Jordanian law.

Humans, created by God with higher consciousness and stewardship over nature and animals, bear the responsibility of finding sustainable solutions that embody compassion and dignity toward animals. Verse 6:39 of the Qur’an emphasizes coexistence between animal societies and humans:

“There is no creature on earth nor bird that flies with its wings but they are communities like you; We have not neglected anything in Our decision.”

Islam establishes a clear barrier against unethical treatment of animals, including cruelty or killing. A well-known hadith recounts the man who entered paradise for quenching the thirst of a dog as thirsty as himself. Another hadith describes a woman condemned to hell for imprisoning a cat without feeding it or allowing it to seek food on its own.

Impact of Cats on the Ecosystem

The population of cats in Jordanian urban environments is also increasing. Unlike dogs, which pose a direct threat to humans, cats present both an indirect threat to ecosystems and a direct threat as disease vectors. Cats can cause up to 95% of bird populations to relocate out of fear. They act as ecologically disruptive agents, eliminating small species, many of which are vital to ecosystem stability.

At the same time, cats serve as a tool for ecological research on biodiversity in the country. By analyzing the species cats prey upon, researchers can identify indicator species that would otherwise be difficult to detect. Examples include bats and shrews, which signal pollution and habitat changes. Shrews improve soil quality by burrowing for insect prey, while bats play a crucial role in pest control, pollination, and seed dispersal. Cats often hunt at night, when prey is less active and easier to capture.

Studies indicate that cats kill millions of small species globally. They have caused the extinction of at least 63 species, including 40 birds, 21 mammals, and 2 reptiles. Currently, they threaten approximately 367 species and are ranked as the world’s third most harmful invasive species, after chytrid fungus and rats. Their ability to eradicate species is particularly effective on islands but also significant in already disturbed mainland ecosystems.

When dogs attack or bite humans, the behavior is typically instinct-driven. Most stray dogs are not socialized and are unfamiliar with the loud noises, shouting, and playful running of schoolchildren within their perceived territory. Such stimuli can be overwhelming and misinterpreted as a lack of respect or an intrusion into their personal space, which constitutes a significant trigger for aggression.

Many stray dogs prefer solitude and avoid human interaction. They generally attack when experiencing fear or stress. When a dog bites a child, it often employs the same body language it uses with its own puppies. The dog’s perception of the level of disturbance determines the severity of the attack. For instance, when a dog wishes to correct its pup, it bites the face—a method it may replicate with a human child, even though this can result in severe injuries.

In cases of more serious bites, the behavior usually indicates heightened irritation, where the dog’s intent shifts from signaling to causing harm. Conversely, minor irritation may lead to air-snapping in front of the person as a warning. Understanding these behavioral cues is essential for reducing the risk of potential attacks when encountering stray dogs in urban environments.

Conclusion

Given that Islamic law prohibits the culling of animals, a sustainable solution to the stray animal problem in Jordan requires effective collaboration among various sectors and authorities, with strong consideration of religious, humanitarian, and ethical dimensions. Continued implementation of the Animal Birth Control (ABC) method—commonly referred to as trap-neuter-return—is central to this approach.

Economic and technological constraints influence the feasibility and scope of sterilization programs. A cost-benefit analysis can help weigh the advantages of such initiatives against their financial and logistical challenges. The rapid reproduction of stray dogs, coupled with their potential for biting, and the role of cats in spreading public health risks, damaging agriculture and forestry, and contributing to species extinction, strongly indicate that sterilization is a cost-effective measure.

To enhance program efficiency, more veterinarians must be trained in sterilization techniques, which could be achieved by integrating such training into university curricula. Plans to establish designated areas for stray animals are underway but remain limited by economic factors. Public awareness campaigns—such as posters discouraging the feeding of stray animals—are also necessary, as feeding contributes to increased reproduction in urban settings.

The issue is further compounded by the large daily volume of waste that sustains stray populations and accelerates their growth. Therefore, a multifaceted approach is essential for addressing this ethical dilemma. Such measures would improve citizens’ quality of life, reduce disease transmission, and help preserve vulnerable species within the ecosystem.

References

Agria Djurförsäkring. (2024, 6 november). Varför hundar bits och vad du kan göra åt saken. https://www.agria.se

Blancher, P. (2013). Uppskattat antal fåglar dödade av huskatter (Felis catus) i Kanada. Fågelskydd och ekologi, 8(2), 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ACE-00557-080203

Forskning.se. (2025, 17 november). Hundar har sett olika ut i tusentals år. https://www.forskning.se

Grinell, K. (2017, 11 december). Koranen och skapelsen om sharia, ansvar och ekologisk islam. Dixikon.

Humane World for Animals. (u.å.). Community cats: scientific studies and data. HumanePro. https://www.humanepro.org

International Journal of Environmental Sciences. (2025). Förekomst och zoonotrisk risk för vanliga patogener hos herrelösa och husdjurskatter i Aqaba, Jordanien. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 3624–3627. https://doi.org/10.64252/5hca2j59

Jordan Times. (2023, 13 maj). Low awareness, lack of legislation exacerbate Jordan’s stray dog issue, say experts. Jordan Times. https://jordantimes.com/news/local/low-awareness-lack-legislation-exacerbate-jordans-stray-dog-issue-say-experts

Khaberni. (2025, 23 oktober). 200,000 stray dogs in Amman and 14,500 bite cases in Jordan over two years. Khaberni.

Local Charities Worldwide. (u.å.). One woman takes care of 400 street dogs in Jordan.

Magle, S. B., & Crowther, M. S. (2023). Ecological impacts of domestic cat activity on wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 11. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2023.1282679/full

McClellan, K. (2022). Canine life and death: The affective politics of stray dog management in Jordan. Diyâr. https://doi.org/10.5771/2625-9842-2022-1-101

Price, M., Meier, J., & Arbuckle, B. (2020). Hundekonomier i den antika Mellanöstern och östra Medelhavet. Journal of Field Archaeology, 46(2), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/00934690.2020.1848322

Quran.com. (u.å.). Surah Al-An’am – 165. https://quran.com

Seimenis, A., & Tabbaa, D. (2014). Stray animal populations and public health in the South Mediterranean and the Middle East regions. Veterinaria Italiana, 50(2), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.12834/VETIT.48.134.3

Trouwborst, A., McCornack, P. C., & Camacho, E. M. (2019, 25 juni). Domestic cats and their impacts on biodiversity: A blind spot in the application of nature conservation law. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution.