Renewable Energy in Palestine

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High population growth, increasing living standards and rapid industrial growth has led to tremendous energy demand in the Palestinian Territories in recent years. The energy situation in Palestine is highly different compared to other countries in the Middle East due to non-availability of natural resource, financial crunch and unstable political condition.

Palestine is heavily dependent on Israel for meeting its energy requirements. Almost all petroleum products are imported through Israeli companies.  Israel controls energy imports into Palestine and thus prevents open trade in electricity and petroleum products between Palestine and other countries.

Current Scenario

Energy is increasingly becoming unaffordable for people living in Palestinian areas due to rampant poverty and widespread unemployment. Ironically, fuel and energy costs for Palestinians are one of the highest in the region. The Palestinian power sector is entirely dependent on imported power supply, 88% from the Israel and 3% from Jordan and Egypt. 

Egypt supplies merely 17MW of electrical power to the Gaza Strip while 20MW is supplied to Jericho by Jordan’s state-utility firm. Exploitation of renewable energy resources is required at a mass-level so as to ensure a cheap and sustainable source of energy to the Palestinians. The major renewable energy resources in Palestine are solar, geothermal and biomass. The Palestinian Energy Authority is currently in the process of launching the bid for solar and wind energy resource mapping and geospatial analysis. At the end of 2012, renewable energy contributed merely 1.4% in the energy mix, though Palestine is targetting 10% clean energy installed capacity by the year 2020.

There is high potential for solar energy in the Palestine, with a daily average solar radiation of 5.4 kWh/m2 which should encourage its use for mass applications like cooking, industrial and domestic heating, water pumping, rural electrification, desalination etc. Although geothermal energy potential in Palestine has not been quantified yet, there has great deal of interest in geothermal energy due to the path-breaking efforts of Ramallah-based MENA Geothermal. Being an agricultural society, Palestine has appreciable amount of animal manure, crop wastes and solid wastes which can be utilized for generation of biomass energy. 

Solar Energy

Solar energy can be a major contributor to the future Palestinian energy supply, with its high potential in the area. Palestine receives about 3,000 hours of sunshine per year and has an average solar radiation of 5.4 kWh/m. Domestic solar water heating (SWH) is widely used in Palestine where almost 70% of houses and apartments have such systems. Infact, Palestine is one of the leading countries in the field of SWH for domestic purpose. SWH is made locally in the West Bank and Gaza Strip with a production rate of about 24,000 units per year which is considered to be sufficient for the Palestinian market. Solar thermal and photovoltaic systems are yet to take off in Palestinian areas due to high costs associated with such systems.

Geothermal Energy

The heating and cooling requirements of Palestinians can be met by judicious exploitation of geothermal energy, as shown as Ramallah-based MENA Geothermal.  The company, founded by Palestinian entrepreneur Khaled Al Sabawi has put Palestine of global geothermal map by devising a simple but ingenious geothermal heating and cooling system. The company, founded in 2008, has made swift progress and has been instrumental in developing a wide range of commercial and residential projects in Palestine and Jordan. In summer, the temperature below the earth’s surface is lower than atmospheric temperatures, and in winter it is higher. MENA Geothermal capitalizes on this by burying pipes below ground. Water pumped through these pipes then capture the temperature to feed the building’s heating and cooling system.

A geothermal system utilizes the energy from the sun, which is stored in the earth, to heat and cool homes and buildings. Typically, electric power is used only to operate the unit’s fan, compressor and pump. The geothermal system essentially uses the stable temperature of the ground at a specific depth for heating in winter and cooling in summer, providing clean energy and reducing energy costs.

Biomass Energy

Biomass energy is predominantly used for heating purposes and constitutes approximately 15% of Palestinian energy supply. Being an agrarian economy, Palestine has a strong potential for biomass energy. There is good potential for biogas generation from animal manure, poultry litter and crop wastes. In addition, organic fraction of municipal solid wastes is also represents a good biomass resource in Palestine. The Gaza Strip alone produces more than 1300 tons of solid wastes.

Conclusion

Palestine can reduce reliance on imported energy carriers by deployment of clean energy systems, especially solar, geothermal and biomass. Palestinian areas has large alternative energy potential which can be harnessed by a futuristic energy policy, large-scale investments and strategic assistance from neighbouring countries like Jordan and Egypt.  Renewable energy can lay a strong foundation for an independent Palestinian state, generate employment opportunities, alleviate poverty and provide a visionary approach to the dreams of Palestinian youths. 

Desert Locusts: A Major Threat to Food Security in Africa and Africa

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The latest outbreak of locusts over eastern Africa has been ongoing since the beginning of this year. It is considered by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the UN as the worst outbreak of locusts in 70 years. The threat of the desert locust is extreme urgent as it’s a major threat to the food security in the region. Bearing in mind, that this region is extremely vulnerable to the predominant subsistence lifestyle.

It also appears that new breeding may have occurred in Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia which will intensify the infestation. The question that are foremost in minds of ecological scientists and agriculturalists is what is the relationship between climate change and the locust infestation? Is there a correlation and is it manageable?

Locust numbers diminish by two main process: through migration or through the natural occurrence of mortality. The desert locust is typically found in the semi-arid and arid deserts of Africa, and in the Near-East and South-West Asia. These are regions that usually receive less than 200 mm of annual precipitation.

But over the past two decades, temperatures have been rising significant above the long-term average temperatures. These hotter conditions appear to be giving rise to more aggressive. More destructive swarms of locusts. This would also imply bigger swarms of locusts which are totally devastating across eastern Africa. Higher temperatures are also associated with above normal rainfall.

The numbers show that some of the fastest warming countries on the globe are in Africa. Rainfall in some areas within this region have been 400 per cent above normal rainfall. These two factors, temperature and moisture and favouring increased breeding of the locust. These increased rainfalls are attributed by the intensified Indian Ocean dipole. And this meteorological phenomenon is enhanced by climate change globally. Therefore, the basic ingredients for a natural disaster tending to biblical proportions maybe very near at hand.

Africa is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and any aberration from what would be labelled as typical or normal weather patterns. The vulnerability of this large land mass is due to the overall low levels of socio-economic development. People live depend on subsistence farming. When there is limited rains, extreme or prolonged high temperatures, severe weather systems, subsistence farming lifestyles are extremely vulnerable to any changes in climatic factors. They are already highly vulnerable to conditions of poverty, but such a natural occurrence of a swarm of locusts ensures their poverty for the following seasons. They lack the resources to be able to overcome such devastation in the next season.

The desert locust in their vast numbers ravage the crops, devour the wild plant life depriving both humans and animals of basic food supplies. These means that both food crops and animals are wiped out. Their whole livelihood disappears and places them on the starvation timeline. These subsistence farmers do not have the means, resources or the equipment to manage or control such infestations.

The sizes of the swarms are so massive. The preventive treatment process would need to be actioned much earlier in the season and is dependent on expensive organophosphate chemicals, pesticides that are applied on vehicle-mounted sprayers or by aerial spraying. Knapsack and back mounted hand-held sprayers would be just too ineffective.

There is research into biological control or non-chemical control. But with the spatial extent of these swarms plus the number of individual creatures makes control measures a massive challenge. Plus the fact that the locust is mobile and can move quite rapidly from location to location. The current research is more focused on insect growth regulators. This is in preference to widespread spraying of pesticides which may also target beneficial insects that are active in fruit pollination or as companion species that manage and control less invasive plant eating species. Also, aerial or ground sprayed pesticides are also a threat to human health.

People and birds can and do eat locusts but the number of the insects is so immense, that its not manageable by natural enemies. This is not a viable control measure.

The number one threat from a locust invasion is food security. The primary concern and basic need are to be able to provide food to those areas devastated by the insect invasion.  Whether forecasting can warn or alert regions that may be subjected to atypical occurrence of the swarms such as the recent locust infestation in the Middle East where the shamal winds carry the locusts across Saudi Arabia into the neighbouring countries such as Bahrain and Qatar.

The big organizations such as FAO are set up to provide early warnings of the locust situation and forecast weather conditions that might enhance the breeding conditions or the movement of such swarms. But this is an alert or warning system regarding imminent danger. There is advanced technology whereby farmers can use solar dryers to harvest their crops earlier and so preserve a significant portion from an early harvest because of the potential onset of a locust attack. But this is cost prohibitive for subsistence farmers and villagers.

The situation is fearful for the local communities who are very aware of the imminent threat of starvation from loss of crops and animal livestock. Their hope is severely targeted. The outcome is dire.

4 Practical Ways to Repurpose Your Mattress

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With the increased focus on going green to help save the planet, more people are looking for mattress recycling options, and while recycling your mattress is an excellent idea, why not consider repurposing your mattress instead? Repurposing your mattress is another way to save it from the landfill and, if you use one of these practical ways to repurpose it, you’ll have a new item to enjoy in your home as well.

ways to recycle your mattress

1. Make a Comfortable Pet Bed

Turning your old memory foam mattress into a comfortable pet bed is a great way to get more use out of your mattress for its intended purpose. After all, your pet deserves to have a comfortable place to lie down and commercial pet beds, especially those made out of memory foam, can be very expensive. Trim your mattress down to an appropriate size for your pet and add a washable cover. Your furry four-legged friend will thank you!

2. Create a Patio Table

Strip your inner-spring mattress down to its springs, paint them with rust-free spray paint, and add a base made out of wood or metal to create a funky patio table. You can leave the springs exposed to have instant cup holders or you can cover them with a sheet of plexiglass to have a smooth tabletop surface while still being able to see the innersprings. You can even cut the springs down to different sizes and shapes to create even more whimsical outdoor tables.

3. Create a Vertical Garden

Converting your innerspring mattress springs into a vertical garden makes use of space that would normally not be used. Strip the fabric away from the springs and set the springs up on their side against a wall. Place pots or other types of containers in each spring, fill them with soil, and plant your herbs, flowers, or small vegetables. This is an idea that will work both inside and outside your home, but if you do it inside, make sure you also have a drainage system for water.

eco-friendly-sleep

4. Make Stuffing for Pillows

A memory foam mattress is made of the perfect material for pillows and other soft items like stuffed animals, cushions, and unique art projects. Shred the memory foam mattress into small pieces and put them into zippered pillow cases to create pillows or seat cushions. If you know any sports fans who have to sit on those hard bleachers to watch games, a gift of a lightweight padded cushion they can easily bring with them will be much appreciated.

Check marketplaces like Craigslist or Etsy for people or companies who might need your shredded-up memory foam mattress for their craft or work projects. Many people make stuffed animals or other items that need a lightweight stuffing material. You can also donate it to school art programs to give students more material to create with.

Conclusion

Recycling your mattress is usually the first thing that comes to mind when you’re trying to keep your old mattress out of the landfill. But it certainly isn’t the only option. Try one of these mattress repurposing ideas or come up with one of your own for a comfortable pet bed, a unique furniture piece, a space-saving garden, or a versatile craft material.

9 Tools You Need to Thrive on Your Exams

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According to studies, roughly 16-20% of students experience high levels of exam anxiety. Another 18% have it on a moderate level. But the truth is, whether it’s moderate or high, it still interferes with your ability to do your best during the test.

The good news for all students is that there are many practices that help ease the stress before a test day. Moreover, if you complement these stress-management practices with the right tools, you will be able to nail any exam like a pro.

In this guide, we will give you a list of essential exam prep tools (both digital and others) that will help you ensure academic success!

Digital Exam Prep Tools for Students

Digital Exam Prep Tools

1. WritePaper

The first and primary issue with exams is that there never seems to be enough time to prepare for them. When you are in college, you are challenged with dozens of papers, projects, and other academic assignments with tight deadlines. And even with a big test ahead, you won’t be freed from other tasks. Luckily, all it takes is to say, “please, write my paper for me,” and experts from WritePaper will come to your rescue. This tool is a reliable academic help platform that will help you keep up with your current tasks and also get more time to get ready for an exam.

2. HippoCampus

The next app on our list is also meant to make the most out of your study days. It features a broad collection of multimedia resources on levels from middle school to college and for a variety of subject matters. HippoCampus specializes in visual learning materials like animations, videos, simulations, etc. If you are more of a visual learner, it will definitely help you train your memory and retain the studied information better. As visual-first learning continues to grow, tools like an AI video maker are also being used to create engaging educational content that supports this style of learning.

3. MarinaraTimer

This app is basically a timer designed for more effective time management. MarinaraTimer utilizes the well-known Pomodoro Technique to help students be more productive during their study sessions. Using this app, you will add more structure to your test prep routine and, thus, will be able to process and retain more information in less time. It will help you organize your sessions into short 25-minute work periods divided by 5-15-minute breaks for rest. Just give it a try, and you’ll see how helpful it can be!

4. MyStudyLife

Many students get worse exam anxiety and attain poorer results due to a single reason – they are not organized enough and tend to procrastinate. If that sounds like you, our next suggestion is something you should try! MyStudyLife is one of the best planners for college students. It helps you keep better track of your assignments, deadlines, test dates, and other important things. With its help, you can make a plan for everything you do, including exam prep, and do it more effectively than ever.

5. Evernote

Finally, the last digital tool every student needs to thrive on tests is EverNote. This famous app makes note-taking a piece of cake. Using it, you will be able to take more effective notes during your classes, organize them based on a subject, and access them whenever you need. As a result, you will have plenty of good notes and study materials to get ready for important exams.

Other Handy Exam Prep Tools

While a professional paper writing service, Evernote, and other digital tools from the list above will definitely help you get ready for and nail any test, there are also other tools that might come in handy.

Namely, here is what we recommend keeping at hand:

6. Study Guides

The study guides provided by your professors are the best for getting ready for an upcoming test. Such guides can help you focus your study efforts and make sure you understand all the key concepts. However, even if your professor didn’t supply you with a guide, you can find one online and use it to your benefit too.

how to write like a pro

7. Practice Tests

After you take enough time to study the main concepts and facts, it’s never a bad idea to put yourself to the test. Taking practice tests will help you get an idea of what to expect on the actual exam and identify areas where you need to improve. Besides, such a practice will help you reduce anxiety.

8. Highlighters

When studying for an exam, be sure to keep a few highlighters at hand too. Using them, you can highlight the most important information right in your textbooks and notes to make it easier to review and retain.

9. Good Sleep and Nutritious Eating

Although these two points aren’t exactly tools, they are crucial for thriving on any text. Scientists confirm that poor sleep and eating habits have a devastating effect on your mental health, energy levels, stress, and even brain. Thus, when you don’t get enough sleep or don’t fuel your body with nutritious food, there is no way you can do your best academically. So make sure you sleep well and provide your body and brain with healthy food to succeed and keep your energy levels up during exam time.

The Bottom Line

Exams always sound like something terrifying to students. Nevertheless, they aren’t so scary if you have all the right to prepare for them well.

From bags of highlighters to a good night’s sleep – all methods are worth it if they help you concentrate, feel confident, and succeed. So use this article as your checklist to thrive on your exams!

Ramadan: A Catalyst for Green Living

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The true meaning of Ramadan is to take care of our body, soul, people, surrounding and ecosystems. The month of Ramadan is a golden opportunity to make a real shift towards ‘green living’ that is environmental friendly, non-polluting, non-wasteful and aim towards conservation of natural resources.

This Ramadan, let us create awareness on use of resources, think and act positively towards our environment and change our reckless habits which are impacting our ecosystem. Let us seize this opportunity to adopt a model for a green and environmentally responsible behavior that addresses urgent environmental issues.

simple ramadan iftar

 

Ramadan witnesses an over-consumption of meat, vegetables and fruits together with drinks, juices and syrups. We become more extravagant in terms of using food and resources. So, let us be patient on these consumptions, eat healthy and organic food in manageable quantities. Let us grow vegetables and fruits at our available land/ space. Use food items judiciously and avoid any wastage.

Let us be away from our routine habits that pollute our air, soil and water resources. Let us be aware of our wasteful habits which are affecting the environment and our future generations. We need to understand that any mismanagement of our precious available resources will be having an irreversible impacts on our ecology and for our future generations. Let us make concerted effort to encourage and embrace “green” practices, especially during Ramadan.

environment-protection-muslims

Ramadan presents the perfect opportunity to recharge our spiritual batteries for the year. It is a time to seek forgiveness for our misgivings and to reflect upon the signs of creation from Allah. As human beings, we have a duty as stewards over this planet, and it is our responsibility to ensure that the resources and environment are used in a sustainable manner.

Let this month not only harness our mental and physical ability but also be a turning point for respecting our resources and environment. Some basic thoughts for a sustainable Ramadan are as follows:

  • Support and utilize local produce.
  • Plan food usage with no wastage.
  • Reducing the water usage, especially during making ‘wadoo’/ ablution. Be vigilant that the tap is closed. Any dripping should be eliminated to conserve precious water.
  • Generating less quantity of waste especially food waste. Support & practice recycling and reuse.
  • No littering especially in common areas, commercial and religious places and shopping areas.
  • Minimum or no use of plastic bags. Using less paper and stationery.
  • Switching off appliances after use like lights, ACs, fans, heaters, iron etc.
  • Using electrical appliances like washing machines, iron, vacuum cleaner and dishwashers in off peak hours.
  • Eliminate use of disposables plates, cutlery, cups, containers etc. Avoid using Styrofoam containers and plastic cutlery.

Beneath the Face of Nature: Rethinking the Relationship Between Humanity and Nature

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Contemporary society is not ignorant of environmental harm. Scientific evidence and public awareness campaigns have made the consequences of environmental harm widely understood. Yet, still, environmental harm persists, even worse than before which suggests that the problem lies far deeper than knowledge of the harm occurring. The core of the problem lies in disrespect towards the environment. This dynamic, quite interestingly, resembles the pattern in human abusive relationships. Individuals may recognize the consequences of their damage to the other party, yet they continue to act destructively simply because they do not recognize the worth of the other party. Similarly, environmental harm continues to exist not because humanity is unaware of the consequences but because nature is often regarded primarily in terms of its utility rather than its intrinsic value.

humanity and nature

Most major world religions portray the relationship between humans and the environment as a relationship of trust and trusteeship, where humans are caretakers entrusted with caring for the natural world. This is evident in Islam, where it is mentioned in the Holy Quran, Surah Al-Baqarah 2:30, [1] that establishes that humans are the stewards of the earth, entrusted with authority over creation. This concept is also similar in Christianity, where the Bible in Genesis 2:15 [2] establishes that humans are caretakers of the earth.  Yet, a question is raised. Does simply being a trustee mean we have authority over the environment? And if so, what kind of authority?

Authority has never possessed a single moral meaning across political, social, and moral spheres. On the one hand, it could mean a trust that demands responsibility, and on the other hand, it could mean the power of dominion, where one does as they please. The environmental crisis of the modern age suggests that humanity has often chosen the latter interpretation, where stewardship and trusteeship are mistaken for entitlement and supremacy.

At the root of this misinterpretation lies anthropocentrism. A worldview belief that humans are central and superior to other non-human entities[3]. With this in mind, this then means that the natural world is seen to be significant to human beings for its benefits.  This means that forests become valuable only because they provide oxygen and resources, rivers matter only because they provide water, and animals become protected only for their economic or ecological functions. While these benefits are valid, this shows that people often protect something only because it serves them. This perspective may also help explain why many species face extinction. When their value is not directly visible to human interests, they become easily overlooked and undervalued.

The anthropocentric mindset contributes significantly to environmental degradation. Decisions such as large-scale deforestation are justified with the assumption that the resources are required for human survival, overlooking that it greatly harms ecosystems and their role as habitats of other forms of life. Ironically,  the anthropocentric view of nature is evident in the environmental campaigns that occur. More often than not, we hear advocates of environmental care saying that the environment needs to be preserved ‘for future generations’, rather than recognizing that nature in its own right has value.

By viewing nature through the human utility lens, people fail to recognize that nature has its own intrinsic value and is an integral part of a complex interdependent system. This results in a pattern that prioritizes short-term human gain over long-term balance.

Genuine respect for nature can then only arise among humans when nature is recognized as valuable in itself, without taking into consideration the benefits it may have. The Quranic portrayal of the natural world defines nature not as tools waiting to be used by humans but as creations of God already living in complete obedience to divine order.  As evident in Surah Al Hajj 22:18, nature is seen to always be in prostration to Allah Subhanahu wa ta’ala (SWT).[4] This verse suggests that the natural world fulfils its purpose without corruption, unlike human beings. The arrogance of human beings lies in imagining that being entrusted with stewardship makes humanity greater than the natural world we have been asked to protect, yet the natural world constantly fulfils its purpose without flaw.

What view should then be adopted so as to ensure that the environment is treated as a creation with its own intrinsic value? The ecocentric perspective may provide a solution whereby humanity is seen to be part of a broader ecological system, rather than above it. This means the relationship between nature and humans is not one of master and subject but rather a partnership, even within a shared system of life. Such a view is already evident in many cultures, such as the Native American culture, where humans are believed to be part of nature and even relatives to nature. [5]

nature-based learning

In recent years, certain legal systems have begun to reflect a growing recognition of nature’s intrinsic worth. Most notably, Ecuador’s constitution recognises nature as possessing rights of its own. [6] Under this framework, ecosystems are not protected only because they benefit human beings, but because they are seen as entities with inherent value that deserve respect and protection.

Ultimately, genuine environmental respect cannot be sustained by fear of depletion of benefits alone. It must emerge from understanding that a meaningful and dignified part of the divinely ordered cosmos. This recognition leads to an emerging global effort to reimagine humanity’s relationship with the environment.

[1] https://quran.com/2/30

[2] https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%202%3A15&version=NIV

[3] https://www.britannica.com/topic/anthropocentrism

[4] https://quran.com/al-hajj/18

[5]https://www.robbiegeorgephotography.com/blog/blog_posts/nature-native-american-wisdom?srsltid=AfmBOoql72OqdDYFe8UCWGc_EnxoUsVSgrzocj0qVPbYvq3epM0i-D8m

[6] https://www.garn.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Rights-for-Nature-Articles-in-Ecuadors-Constitution.pdf

بصمة خضراء… ألوان الهيدروجين

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الهيدروجين بلا لون. شفّاف، عديم الشكل، لا يترك ظلًا ولا أثرًا. عنصر بسيط في تركيبه، لكن معقّد في قصّته. لم يكن يومًا أبيض أو أخضر أو رماديًا بطبيعته، بل كان دائمًا مجرّد هيدروجين. غير أنّ اللحظة التي قرّر فيها الإنسان استخدامه وقودًا للمستقبل، تحوّل هذا العنصر الصامت إلى لوحة ألوان. ألوان لا تعكس جوهره، بل تعكس طريقتنا في إنتاجه، وخياراتنا، ونوايانا.

فليس كل هيدروجين «نظيفًا» كما تُصوّره العناوين اللامعة، وليس كل ما يلمع صديقًا للبيئة. هناك هيدروجين يُسوَّق كحل، بينما يُخفي خلفه دخانًا مؤجَّلًا. لذلك، لنسِر معًا لونًا بعد لون، لا لنحفظ التصنيفات، بل لنفهم الحكاية.

different colors of hydrogen

الهيدروجين الأخضر… الأنقى والأصدق.

يُنتَج عبر تحليل الماء كهربائيًا، بشرطٍ أساسي: أن تكون الكهرباء من مصادر متجدّدة كالشمس أو الرياح. هنا، لا وقود أحفوري، ولا انبعاثات كربونية، ولا أثر ملوّث على البر أو البحر أو السماء. يمكن تشبيهه بشجرةٍ صادقة؛ تأخذ طاقتها من الشمس، وتُعيدها إلينا نظيفة.

لكن هذه النزاهة لها ثمن. فالهيدروجين الأخضر لا يزال مكلفًا، والبنية التحتية لإنتاجه محدودة. لذلك، يبقى حضوره أقل مما نطمح، رغم كونه الخيار الأكثر انسجامًا مع مستقبلٍ نظيف.

الهيدروجين الأزرق… محاولة متردّدة.

يُنتَج من الغاز الطبيعي، تمامًا كالرمادي، لكنه يحاول تدارك الضرر عبر احتجاز ثاني أكسيد الكربون الناتج عن العملية. هو اعتراف غير مباشر بالمشكلة، ومحاولة لمعالجتها بعد وقوعها.

هل يمكن الوثوق به؟ الإجابة ليست بسيطة. فنجاحه يعتمد على كفاءة احتجاز الكربون، وأمان تخزينه لعقود طويلة. لذلك، يراه كثيرون حلًا انتقاليًا، لا نهاية للطريق، بل جسرًا هشًّا بين واقع ملوّث وطموح أنظف.

الهيدروجين الرمادي… الأكثر انتشارًا والأكثر ضررًا.

نحو نصف إنتاج الهيدروجين عالميًا يأتي من الغاز الطبيعي عبر «إعادة تشكيل الميثان بالبخار». عملية فعّالة اقتصاديًا، لكنها ثقيلة بيئيًا. فكل كيلوغرام واحد من الهيدروجين الرمادي يطلق قرابة عشرة كيلوغرامات من ثاني أكسيد الكربون.

هنا، لم نحلّ المشكلة، بل غيّرنا اسمها فقط. والأسوأ؟ أنّه الأرخص. لذلك يُفضَّل، لا لأنه الأفضل، بل لأنه الأسهل. ثمنه يُدفع لاحقًا… من هواء المدن، وصحّة البشر، واستقرار المناخ.

الهيدروجين الأسود أو البني… طاقة الفحم.

يُستخرج من الفحم باستخدام درجات حرارة عالية، دون احتجاز للكربون أو حتى محاولة تقليل الأثر. طاقة رخيصة على الورق، لكنها باهظة على الأرض. سحب سامة، وتلوّث عميق، وبصمة كربونية لا يمكن تبريرها.

وجود هذا اللون في خريطة الطاقة ليس مجرّد خيار تقني، بل دليل على أن بعض الأنظمة لا تزال عالقة في الماضي، ترفض الاعتراف بأن التغيير ضرورة، لا ترفًا.

الهيدروجين الأصفر… لون النيّة.

يُنتَج بالتحليل الكهربائي، لكن دون تحديد مصدر الكهرباء. قد يكون من الشمس، وقد يكون من الوقود الأحفوري. لذلك، لونه الحقيقي ليس في المعادلة الكيميائية، بل في قرارنا.
الأصفر ليس لونًا مستقلًا بقدر ما هو مرآة: يمكن أن يتحوّل إلى أخضر إن صدقت النوايا، أو إلى رمادي إن سلكنا الطريق الأسهل.

الهيدروجين الوردي أو البنفسجي… معضلة النووي.

يعتمد على كهرباء مولّدة من الطاقة النووية لفصل الماء. من حيث الانبعاثات الكربونية، يبدو نظيفًا. لكن القصة لا تنتهي هنا. فالنفايات المشعّة تفتح سؤالًا مؤجَّلًا: ليس عن اليوم، بل عن الغد.

أين تذهب هذه النفايات؟ ومن يضمن أمانها بعد خمسين أو مئة عام؟ النظافة هنا لحظية، لكن تبعاتها طويلة الأمد.

الهيدروجين الفيروزي… وعد لم يكتمل.

يُنتَج عبر تقنية «التحلّل الحراري للميثان»، منتجًا كربونًا صلبًا بدل ثاني أكسيد الكربون. فكرة ذكية، تقلّل الانبعاثات جذريًا، لكنّها لا تزال في طور التجربة. تحتاج نضجًا تقنيًا، وتكلفة أقل، وثقة سوقية لم تكتمل بعد. هو وعدٌ جميل… لم يصل بعد إلى مرحلة الالتزام.

الهيدروجين الأبيض… النادر الصامت.

موجود طبيعيًا في باطن الأرض. لا نُنتجه، بل نبحث عنه. نادر، وغير مفهوم بالكامل، لكنه يهمس برسالة عميقة: أحيانًا، تُخفي الأرض حلولًا لم نفسدها بعد. وربما يكون احترامنا للطبيعة هو مفتاح اكتشافها، لا استنزافها.

في النهاية، الهيدروجين لا يختار.

نحن من نختار كيف نُنتجه، ومن أين نأخذه، وماذا نترك بعده. «أخضر»، «رمادي»، «بني»، «فيروزي»… كلها انعكاس لنوايانا، لا للتقنية وحدها. فالتكنولوجيا قد تلمع، لكن البيئة لا تنخدع.

ويبقى السؤال الذي يجب أن نطرحه في كل مرة نختار فيها وقودنا:

هل يترك هذا الخيار بصمة؟

أم يمحو بصمتنا من الأرض؟

Zero Liquid Discharge and Brine Valorization in Seawater Desalination: Perspectives for the MENA Region

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Abstract

The expansion of seawater desalination has significantly increased global brine production, exceeding 140 million m³/day, with more than half generated in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region [1]. Brine disposal poses environmental and economic challenges, particularly in semi-enclosed marine systems. Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) and brine valorization strategies aim to eliminate liquid effluent while recovering water and valuable minerals. This study analyzes current ZLD configurations, mineral recovery pathways, and techno-economic constraints. Particular attention is given to the Saudi Arabian national strategy as a leading example of industrial-scale brine mining. The findings indicate that hybrid membrane–thermal systems combined with selective mineral recovery may enable desalination to evolve into a circular resource platform.

Context and Rationale

Seawater desalination has become a cornerstone of water security in arid regions. Reverse osmosis (RO) represents the dominant global technology [1]. However, desalination generates hypersaline brine streams containing 65–85 g/L TDS in SWRO reject streams [1].

Global brine production exceeds 51.7 billion m³ annually [1]. Disposal costs may represent up to one-third of operational expenditure depending on discharge strategy [2]. Environmental impacts include localized salinity elevation, benthic ecosystem disturbance, and accumulation of chemical residuals.

These pressures have accelerated research into Minimum Liquid Discharge (MLD) and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) configurations [2,3]. Simultaneously, brine is increasingly recognized as a secondary resource for minerals and energy [3].

This study evaluates current technological pathways for brine valorization and examines their strategic implications for the MENA region.

brine production worldwide

Analytical Framework and Evaluation Approach

The present work is based on:

  • A systematic review of peer-reviewed literature (2019–2025) on ZLD and brine valorization [2–5];
  • Comparative techno-economic assessments of membrane and thermal systems [2];
  • Global mineral recovery potential modeling derived from SWRO brine composition data [3];
  • Assessment of national-scale brine mining strategies in Saudi Arabia [6].

The evaluation integrates four dimensions:

  • Technology classification and maturity
  • Energy consumption comparison
  • Mineral recovery potential estimation
  • Strategic and policy analysis

This multi-criteria approach enables a structured assessment of technological feasibility and regional applicability.

Technological Performance and Recovery Pathways

Water Recovery Enhancement through MLD and ZLD

MLD systems typically achieve 80–90% total water recovery using membrane-based concentration technologies [2].

ZLD systems reach 95–99% recovery by combining membrane pre-concentration with thermal crystallization stages [3]. However, thermal polishing may increase specific energy consumption by 10–20 kWh/m³ [2].

Hybrid membrane–thermal configurations appear to provide the most balanced compromise between recovery efficiency and energy demand [2,3].

Principal Valorization Technologies

Four major technological pathways emerge:

(a) Advanced Membrane Technologies

  • High-Pressure Reverse Osmosis (HPRO) [2]
  • Forward Osmosis (FO) [4]
  • Membrane Distillation (MD) [4]
  • Electrodialysis (ED/EDR) [5]
  • Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis (BMED) [4]

These technologies enhance selective ion recovery and reduce thermal dependency.

(b) Thermal Concentration and Crystallization

  • Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
  • Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC)
  • Forced circulation crystallizers

Thermal systems remain technically mature but energy-intensive [2].

(c) Mineral Recovery (Brine Mining)

Recoverable products include:

  • Sodium chloride (NaCl)
  • Magnesium compounds
  • Calcium salts
  • Bromine
  • Trace elements (Sr, Rb, Li)

A recent global assessment demonstrated that magnesium recovery potential from SWRO brine could theoretically exceed current global mining production [3].

(d) Salinity Gradient Energy

Reverse Electrodialysis (RED) and Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO) allow electricity generation from salinity gradients [4], offering complementary valorization potential.

National-Scale Implementation: The Saudi Arabian Model

Saudi Arabia accounts for over 30% of global SWRO capacity [1].

Under Vision 2030, national authorities have initiated brine mining strategies targeting:

  • Bromine recovery
  • Industrial NaCl production
  • Magnesium valorization
  • Integration with petrochemical industries [6]

Preliminary assessments indicate that mineral recovery could significantly offset desalination production costs [6], positioning desalination as a strategic industrial platform rather than a pure utility service.

brine production from desalination

Interpretation and Strategic Implications

Technical Viability

ZLD is technically feasible but remains highly energy-dependent. Hybrid membrane–thermal integration represents the most promising route toward scalability [2,3].

Economic Considerations

NaCl and Mg recovery show near-term industrial potential, whereas trace element extraction remains constrained by concentration levels and purification costs [3].

Environmental Alignment

ZLD reduces marine discharge impacts and supports circular economy principles [4]. Renewable energy integration is critical to reduce carbon footprint.

Regional Strategy for MENA

Desalination-intensive countries in MENA may reposition brine as a strategic mineral resource. Saudi Arabia provides the most advanced example of national-scale integration [6], illustrating how desalination can contribute to economic diversification.

Conclusions and Future Outlook

Zero Liquid Discharge and brine valorization represent a transformative pathway for desalination-intensive regions. Although energy intensity remains a major constraint, hybrid technologies and selective mineral recovery demonstrate strong potential. Strategic policies, such as those implemented in Saudi Arabia, illustrate how desalination may evolve from a water production industry into a mineral resource platform.

Future research priorities include:

  • Energy optimization
  • Selective extraction technologies
  • Advanced thermodynamic modeling
  • Renewable coupling strategies

Desalination is no longer solely a water security instrument; it may become a cornerstone of resource security in arid regions.

References

[1] Jones, E.; Qadir, M.; van Vliet, M.; Smakhtin, V.; Kang, S.M. The state of desalination and brine production: A global outlook. Science of the Total Environment, 2019, 657, 1343–1356.

[2] Panagopoulos, A. Techno-economic assessment of minimal and zero liquid discharge desalination systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 2022, 301, 113859.

[3] Morgante, C.; Herrero-Gonzalez, M.; Lopez, J.; Imholze, J.; Boffa, V.; Ibañez, R.; Cortina, J.L. Seawater reverse osmosis brine valorization: Global mineral recovery potential. Desalination, 2025, 580, 119718.

[4] Ihsanullah. Potential of membrane and thermal technologies for brine management and resource recovery. Desalination, 2022, 530, 115682.

[5] Mavukkandy, M.; Choi, J.; Lee, S.; Kim, I.S. Brine management in desalination industry: A comprehensive review. Desalination, 2019, 463, 123–137.

[6] Alt, S.; Fellows, C. Seawater desalination brine mining: National strategy and economic assessment. Water Policy, 2024, 26, 1123–1142.

Jordan’s Green Hydrogen Opportunity: Investing in Europe’s Energy Transition

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Europe is moving quickly to clean up its energy system, and in the process is reshaping global energy investment and climate finance flows. This shift is opening a real opportunity for Jordan to turn its renewable energy advantage into a new export industry. Green hydrogen—exported mainly in the form of green ammonia and shipped to Europe—offers a practical way for Jordan to attract climate finance, grow exports, and support the goals of the Economic Modernization Vision.

green hydrogen in jordan

The vision is clear about what Jordan needs: a stronger economy built on exports, investment, and productive jobs. Achieving this will require more than policy reforms. It will require new industries that link Jordan to global markets shaped by energy security, climate policy, and long-term capital flows. Green hydrogen is one such opportunity.

Europe’s main challenge is cutting emissions in sectors that cannot easily switch to electricity. Heavy industry, fertilizers, shipping, and back-up power all need clean fuels. Hydrogen and its derivatives are central to Europe’s plans. But Europe cannot produce enough green hydrogen on its own. Power costs are high, land is limited, and permitting is slow. Imports have therefore become a strategic necessity.

The European Union plans to import up to 10 million tons of renewable hydrogen by 2030, much of it in the form of ammonia, using existing ports and shipping routes. This creates long-term demand that aligns well with Jordan’s export and investment priorities.

Aqaba sits at the heart of this opportunity. With access to renewable energy, land, water solutions, and a functioning port, Aqaba can support large-scale hydrogen production and its conversion into clean exportable fuels. In early phases, projects could produce hundreds of thousands of tons per year, with the potential to scale toward million-ton capacity over time as infrastructure and demand grow.

A major recent development strengthens this outlook: the 30-year concession agreement between Abu Dhabi Ports Group and the Aqaba Development Corporation to manage and develop the Aqaba Multipurpose Port. This partnership brings international port expertise, investment capacity, and long-term operational certainty to Jordan’s main maritime gateway.

This matters because ports are critical to the hydrogen economy. Europe is investing heavily in hydrogen and ammonia import terminals, storage facilities, and pipelines linked to ports in countries such as Germany and the Netherlands. By upgrading port infrastructure in Aqaba—storage, handling, safety, and logistics—Jordan can connect directly to Europe’s emerging hydrogen supply chains. This lowers risk for investors and improves project bankability.

From a finance perspective, green hydrogen projects fit well with the existing investment and lending structures. They can be supported through long-term off-take contracts, blended financing, and participation from development banks and export credit agencies. Financing is also increasingly available for enabling infrastructure such as ports, storage facilities, and hydrogen logistics. For Gulf banks and investors, this means familiar structures: large-scale projects, predictable cash flows, and shared risk with strong partners.

Jordan’s clean energy advantages are clear: low-cost solar and wind power, direct maritime access to Europe through Aqaba, and a strong track record in hosting private energy investment. The technology is already proven. The real task now is execution. With clear policies, better coordination between hydrogen projects and Aqaba’s port infrastructure, and early engagement with investors and climate finance institutions, green hydrogen can become a new export pillar for Jordan and a practical driver of long-term economic growth.

Things To Know About The Environmental Impacts of Fracking

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Fracking, or Hydraulic Fracturing, is a method to stimulate or improve fluid flow from rocks in the subsurface. Advancements in extraction technologies have enabled drillers to reach previously inaccessible gas in geological formations The technique involves pumping water-rich fluid into a borehole until the fluid pressure at depth causes the rock to fracture. The pumped fluid contains small particles, such as quartz-rich sand or chemicals, which serve to prop open the fractures. After the fracking job, the pressure in the well is dropped and the water containing released natural gas flows back to the well head at the surface.

environmental consequences of fracking

Fracking (or unconventional gas drilling) has a long history in the United States where approximately one million oil and gas wells have been drilled and fracked. The United States produces 75 percent of its crude oil supply due to massive hydraulic fracturing taking place across the country. Infact, fracking is being increasingly seen as seen as one of the key methods of extracting unconventional oil and gas resources around the world, including Middle East.

Fracking in the Middle East

Middle East is also showing good deal of interest in fracking technology as there is significant potential for producing unconventional gas in several MENA countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Oman, Jordan, Algeria and Tunisia. Oman is making serious efforts in unconventional gas development and is developing one of the most ambitious unconventional gas drilling projects in the world.

Fracking projects at Khazzan field in Oman is producing around 1.5 billion standard cubic feet of gas per day. On the other hand, Saudi Arabia, with estimate shale gas reserves of 600 trillion cubic feet, is expected to produce 2 billion cubic fee of shale gas from Jafurah project by 2030.

Environmental Implications of Fracking

Despite the obvious economic benefits, fracking has become a controversial energy and environmental issue in recent years.  Hydraulic fracturing has come under widespread international scrutiny, with some countries suspending or banning it due to environmental and public health concerns. These concerns have included geomechanical risks, groundwater contamination, air pollution, migration of gases and chemicals to the surface, waste mismanagement etc.

The injection of large volumes of pressurised water into a borehole may alter in-situ stress state and change the propensity of existing fractures to open or faults to slip, thus triggering potential seismic activity. The development of shale gas deposits is an energy-intensive process involving heavy equipment to pump water and create adequate drilling pressure required to extract gas from underground rocks.

According to The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, heavy CO2 emissions are linked back to the engine-powered fracking process, including the blending of fracturing chemicals and sand that are pumped from storage, and the high pressure compression, injection and recovery of materials into and out of the well. The process is extremely water-intensive where several million gallons of fluid are injected underground at high pressure to fracture the rock surrounding an oil or gas well. The use of huge amount of water in the fracking process is a contentious issue in areas where water supplies are scarce.

fracking and its environmental impacts

The US Environmental Protection Agency has repeatedly raised concerns that some of the fracturing chemicals could contaminate drinking water. Recent studies have detected high concentrations of salts, including those of radium and barium, in the flowback waters from late-end fracking operations. A report conducted by Cornell University concluded that hydraulic fracturing could potentially be worse for the environment than coal.

Another contentious issue is the air pollution caused by hydraulic fracturing which may result in serious health problems for communities in the vicinity of drilling sites. A recent study, based on three years of monitoring at Colorado sites, found a number of potentially toxic petroleum hydrocarbons in the air near the wells including benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene and xylene. The potential source of the chemicals is a mix of the raw gas that is vented from the wells and emissions from industrial equipment used during the shale gas production process.

بصمة خضراء… ما هو الهيدروجين؟

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الهيدروجين هو العنصر الأول في الجدول الدوري، والأخف وزنًا في الكون. بسيط جدًا… ذرة واحدة، وإلكترون واحد، لكنه يملك قدرة هائلة تفوق بساطته. في كل قطرة ماء، في كل جزيء عضوي، في كل خلية حيّة تقريبًا، الهيدروجين حاضر. صامت، غير ملفت، لكنه أساسي لوجود الحياة نفسها. نادرًا ما نجده حرًّا في الطبيعة، وغالبًا يكون مرتبطًا بعناصر أخرى، مثل الأكسجين في الماء أو الكربون في الوقود الأحفوري. ومع ذلك، هذا العنصر الصغير بدأ يأخذ دورًا كبيرًا في النقاش العالمي حول مستقبل الطاقة.

الهيدروجين اليوم يُطرح كوقود بديل، ويتميّز بأنه عند استخدامه لا يطلق أي انبعاثات كربونية. الناتج الوحيد من احتراقه هو بخار الماء. لا دخان، لا ثاني أكسيد كربون، ولا جسيمات ملوّثة. لهذا السبب يُنظر إليه كأحد أنظف مصادر الطاقة الممكنة. لكن النظافة هنا ليست تلقائية، بل مشروطة. السؤال الحقيقي ليس ماذا ينتج الهيدروجين عند استخدامه، بل كيف ننتجه من الأساس.

hydrogen fuel

إنتاج الهيدروجين هو النقطة الفاصلة بين الحل الحقيقي والوهم البيئي. إذا تم إنتاجه عبر تحليل الماء باستخدام طاقة متجددة مثل الشمس أو الرياح، فإننا نحصل على ما يُعرف بالهيدروجين الأخضر، وهو وقود نظيف من البداية إلى النهاية. أما إذا تم إنتاجه من الغاز الطبيعي أو الفحم، فإننا نكون قد نقلنا التلوث من مرحلة الاستخدام إلى مرحلة الإنتاج. في هذه الحالة، يتغيّر الاسم، لكن الأثر البيئي يبقى. الهيدروجين هنا ليس مشكلة، بل الطريقة التي نتعامل بها معه.

اليوم، كثير من الدول ترى في الهيدروجين فرصة استراتيجية. هناك سيارات تعمل بخلايا وقود الهيدروجين، وقطارات بدأت تعتمد عليه، وتجارب لطائرات تستخدمه كمصدر طاقة، إضافة إلى صناعات ثقيلة تبحث عن بديل للوقود الأحفوري يصعب استبداله بالكهرباء وحدها. الهيدروجين يُقدَّم كحل لقطاعات لا تكفيها الطاقة الشمسية أو طاقة الرياح بشكل مباشر، مثل صناعة الحديد، الشحن البحري، والطيران.

لكن القوة الحقيقية للهيدروجين لا تكمن في التقنية وحدها، بل في الوعي الذي يقف خلفها. هل نستخدم الهيدروجين كجزء من تحول حقيقي في طريقة إنتاج الطاقة واستهلاكها؟ أم نستخدمه كغطاء جديد لنفس النموذج القديم القائم على الاستهلاك المفرط؟ الطاقة النظيفة لا يكفي أن تكون عنوانًا جذابًا في المؤتمرات أو في التقارير الرسمية، بل يجب أن تكون فعلًا يوميًا، وسياسة واضحة، وخيارًا أخلاقيًا.

ورغم الوعود الكبيرة، يواجه الهيدروجين تحديات حقيقية لا يمكن تجاهلها. تخزينه ليس سهلًا لأنه خفيف جدًا ويحتاج إلى ضغط عالٍ أو تبريد شديد، وكلاهما يستهلك طاقة. نقله يتطلب بنية تحتية خاصة، وخطوط أنابيب مختلفة عن تلك المستخدمة للغاز الطبيعي. وحتى اليوم، لا تزال تكلفة إنتاج الهيدروجين الأخضر مرتفعة مقارنة بالهيدروجين التقليدي أو الوقود الأحفوري، ما يجعل انتشاره الواسع تحديًا اقتصاديًا قبل أن يكون تقنيًا.

وهنا تبرز نقطة أعمق غالبًا ما تُغفل في النقاش العام: الهيدروجين ليس مجرد مسألة طاقة، بل مسألة نظام متكامل. فهو يرتبط بالمياه، بالكهرباء، بالمدن، وبأنماط الاستهلاك نفسها. إنتاج الهيدروجين الأخضر يحتاج مياه، والمياه في كثير من المناطق مورد نادر. كما يحتاج كهرباء متجددة فائضة، وتخطيطًا طويل الأمد يوازن بين الأمن المائي والأمن الطاقي. وهذا يفرض سؤالًا أكبر: هل نبني منظومة متكاملة ذكية، أم نضيف تقنية جديدة إلى نظام قديم مختل؟ الهيدروجين يكشف هشاشة التخطيط القائم على الحلول الجزئية، ويجبرنا على التفكير بمنطق الترابط: طاقة، ماء، صناعة، ونمط حياة. من دون هذا الترابط، قد يتحول من فرصة تحول حقيقي إلى عبء جديد يُدار بنفس العقلية السابقة.

green hydrogen production plant

هذا يعني أن التحول نحو اقتصاد الهيدروجين لا يتطلب فقط تقنيات جديدة، بل يتطلب تغييرًا في طريقة التخطيط، وفي سياسات الدعم الحكومي، وفي استثمارات طويلة الأمد لا تبحث عن نتائج سريعة. كما يتطلب تغييرًا في ثقافة الاستهلاك نفسها. فالهيدروجين، مهما كان نظيفًا، لن يكون حلًا سحريًا إذا استمررنا في استهلاك الطاقة بلا وعي.

الهيدروجين في جوهره ليس مجرد وقود. هو اختبار حقيقي لقدرتنا على التغيير. اختبار لمدى استعدادنا للانتقال من نظام طاقة يقوم على الاستخراج السريع والربح القصير، إلى نظام أكثر توازنًا، يحترم حدود الكوكب، ويفكّر في الأجيال القادمة. السؤال لم يعد: هل نملك التقنية؟ بل: هل نملك الإرادة؟

إذا فهمنا الهيدروجين بهذا العمق، يمكن أن يكون أكثر من مصدر طاقة. يمكن أن يكون نقطة تحوّل في علاقتنا مع الطبيعة، وصفحة جديدة نكتبها بوعي، لا بردّة فعل. أما إذا تعاملنا معه كحل تجميلي، فسنضيف اسمًا جديدًا إلى قائمة الفرص التي أضعناها.

الهيدروجين عنصر بسيط، لكنه يضع أمامنا سؤالًا كبيرًا:
هل نغيّر المنتج فقط… أم نغيّر النظام كله؟

The Hidden Environmental and Social Cost of Wind Farms

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The bottom line is that everything and everybody has an impact on the environment. Regardless of size, energy requirements, output or impacts. There are affects which we might calculate into the model or chose to ignore. Regardless of our choice of action, impacts exist. Wind farms as an alternative energy source is no different. Yes, they appear to be relatively clean and free, with lower impact than the traditional energy sources.

But what is the hidden environmental and social cost of wind power generation? Keep reading to know the answers:

wind farm

Countries have already made large-scale transition to low carbon emission sources of energy. There are vast swaths of land populated with towering wind turbines that stretch as far as the eye can see. As with every major development, the environmental impact reports and assessments highlight the positive and negative aspects of the new development versus the traditional or standard method of using coal and/or gas to generate power.

Research papers published in the USA have highlighted the land demands of wind and solar power sites within the USA. To meet the energy demands, yes wind and solar are far more favourable in ecological terms. But in mere spatial terms, the amount of land required to generate energy to meet the growing demands far exceeded initial estimates.

Land requirements can be anywhere between five to 20 times the land area initially calculated. These massive or large-scale wind farms could in fact, warm average surface temperatures. It has been estimated that over the continental U.S. the surface temperatures could increase by 0.24 degrees Celsius.

It is now very well understood that low-carbon technologies do have social and environmental impacts. To tackle this issue, estimates and calculations of environmental impact from low-carbon technologies on very expansive areas of land and/or water are required. The burning question is how much land or how much water is required to generate electricity that will meet future energy demands.

According to current thinking (for the past decade) it is considered that wind power generation has been over-estimated as the earlier calculations did include consideration of the interaction between the wind turbines and natural environment. But this interaction between structure and nature was underestimated.

The under-estimation is primarily due to the “wind shadow” created by the wind turbines themselves. This wind shadow effect slows down the turbine blades which reduces the amount of power generated compared to what was originally calculated on the draughting table. This means that turbines need to be spaced further apart to reduce the impact of the wind shadow. The reality is that the energy demands will continue to grow and its not feasible to consider and endless expanse of wind turbines covering the land. Eventually, the interaction and climate impact from wind energy generated power will be less avoidable.

Now that wind-generated and solar-powered electricity plants are up and running, there is real data to analyse and calculate the average power density factor. It appears that wind farms that are more than 5-10 kilometers deep there is major impact on the power density component.

It appears that the average power density of wind-generated electricity plants is lower than the average power density of solar farms. This means that more land is required to achieve the predetermined renewable energy target for any one site. This leaves the climatic impact of ever larger wind farms open for further discussion and calculations.

A windfarm in Morocco

140MW Windfarm near Tangiers in Morocco

The largest environmental impact will occur during the night when the turbines are actively continuing to mix the atmosphere near the ground with the air aloft when untampered natural environment would experience more still air without the enhanced mixing. Calculations suggest that the surface temperature in the night hours could increase by as much as 1.5 degrees Celsius.

The in-situ measurements have been compared with satellite-observations in various US states and similar temperature increments were observed and/or calculated. These warming effects will be localised depending on the operation size of the wind-power electricity plant. A key factor in these sorts of calculations is whether one is assessing for short term impacts of over a ten-year period or calculations are over a considerably longer period of hundreds of years.

A note to end on that must be considered in this debate is that the direct climate impacts of wind power are instant and immediate, whereas the benefits of reduced emissions accumulate slowly over time.