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Sustainable Wastewater Management: Why Solid–Liquid Separation is the Quiet Hero of Water Conservation

By Salman Zafar | July 4, 2026 - 3:15 pm |July 4, 2026 Water Management, Industry

Water is the resource that touches every part of the modern economy — yet it is also one of the most mismanaged. According to UN estimates, over 80% of the world’s wastewater is released back into the environment without adequate treatment. In water-stressed regions across the Middle East, North Africa, and beyond, that statistic is not just an environmental concern; it is an existential one. As industries expand and populations grow, the question is no longer whether we treat wastewater, but how efficiently and sustainably we do it.

At the heart of nearly every effective wastewater treatment process lies a deceptively simple principle: separating solids from liquids. Master that step, and you unlock cleaner discharge water, lower energy use, recoverable resources, and dramatically smaller waste volumes. This article explores why solid–liquid separation deserves far more attention in the sustainability conversation — and how the right technology turns a costly obligation into an environmental and economic advantage.

The Hidden Weight of Wastewater

Most people picture wastewater as dirty water. In reality, it is a suspension — water carrying enormous quantities of suspended solids, organic matter, oils, metals, and process residues. Whether the source is a brewery, a sugar refinery, a chemical plant, a mine, or a municipal treatment works, the challenge is the same: the pollutants that make water unsafe are largely locked inside those suspended particles.

If those solids are not removed effectively, three problems cascade:

Environmental harm — untreated solids smother aquatic ecosystems, deplete oxygen, and carry toxins downstream.
Regulatory exposure — discharge limits for total suspended solids (TSS) and turbidity are tightening worldwide.
Wasted resources — water that could be recycled is lost, and valuable materials (metals, organics, filter aids) are thrown away.

The good news is that removing suspended solids is also the single highest-leverage action a facility can take. Every kilogram of solid captured upstream is a kilogram that doesn’t pollute a river, clog a downstream membrane, or inflate a hauling bill.

Filtration: The First Line of Environmental Defense

Effective treatment begins by physically intercepting contaminants before biological or chemical polishing steps. This is where modern industrial filtration systems prove indispensable. Rather than relying on chemistry alone, mechanical filtration uses engineered media, plates, cartridges, and pressure to capture particles down to the micron and sub-micron level.

The environmental advantages of a well-designed filtration stage are significant:

Reduced chemical dependency. By physically removing the bulk of solids first, plants need fewer coagulants and flocculants downstream — meaning less chemical manufacturing, transport, and residual load in the environment.
Water reuse and recovery. Clean filtrate can often be recirculated within the plant for cooling, washing, or process make-up water, directly cutting freshwater withdrawal. In water-scarce regions, this closed-loop approach is transformative.
Longer equipment life. Protecting membranes, pumps, and heat exchangers from abrasive solids extends asset lifespan, reducing the embodied carbon of frequent replacements.

Crucially, filtration is not a one-size-fits-all technology. A candle filter suited to fine catalyst recovery in a chemical plant looks nothing like a chamber filter press handling mining slurry. The sustainability payoff comes from matching the separation technology precisely to the fluid, the particle size, and the desired outcome — clarified water, a dry cake, or a recoverable product.

Sludge: From Costly Burden to Recoverable Resource

Once solids are captured, they concentrate into sludge — and here is where many facilities lose the sustainability battle. Fresh sludge can be 95–99% water by weight. Hauling that much water off-site by truck is expensive, fuel-intensive, and carbon-heavy. It is, quite literally, paying to transport water you already paid to pump.

This is why sludge dewatering is one of the most impactful — and most underrated — steps in the entire water cycle. Dewatering technologies such as filter presses squeeze water out of the sludge under high pressure, transforming a soupy slurry into a stackable, semi-dry cake.

The environmental mathematics are compelling. Reducing sludge moisture from 97% to 70% can shrink its volume by more than half. That translates directly into:

Fewer transport trucks on the road, and therefore lower diesel consumption and tailpipe emissions.
Reduced landfill footprint, as drier cake occupies less space and leaches less liquid.
Recovered water returned to the process, closing the loop once again.
Resource recovery potential, since a dry, handleable cake is far easier to reuse — as construction aggregate, in cement kilns, as soil amendment, or for metal reclamation — than a wet slurry.

In other words, effective dewatering is where wastewater management crosses from “disposal” into genuine circular-economy territory. A properly dewatered cake is no longer just waste; it is a candidate feedstock.

Building a Circular Water Strategy

Sustainable water management is not about a single machine — it is about designing the whole chain so that nothing useful is wasted. Forward-thinking operators are increasingly treating their effluent stream as a resource portfolio:

Capture solids early with the right filtration technology.
Clarify and reuse the filtrate internally to cut freshwater demand.
Concentrate the residual solids through mechanical dewatering.
Convert the resulting cake into a beneficial reuse pathway wherever possible.

Industries as diverse as food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, sugar, textiles, ceramics, and mining are all discovering that this integrated approach improves both their environmental scorecard and their bottom line. A brewery that recovers water for cleaning-in-place cycles, or a mine that dewaters tailings for safe stacking, is doing more than ticking a compliance box — it is future-proofing its operation against water scarcity and rising disposal costs.

Practical Steps for Facility Managers

For organisations looking to strengthen their water sustainability, a few principles consistently deliver results:

Audit your water balance. You cannot optimise what you do not measure. Map where water enters, where it is contaminated, and where it leaves.
Separate streams at the source. Keeping high-solids and low-solids streams apart makes each far easier and cheaper to treat.
Right-size your separation equipment. Oversized systems waste energy; undersized systems bottleneck production. A tailored solution beats a generic one every time.
Prioritise dewatering. If sludge hauling is a major line item, dewatering usually offers one of the fastest returns on investment in the entire plant.
Design for reuse. Ask of every treated stream: can this water — or these solids — be used again?

The global water crisis will not be solved by a single breakthrough. It will be solved incrementally, through countless facilities choosing to treat their wastewater smarter, recover more, and waste less. Solid–liquid separation sits quietly at the centre of that effort. It is not the most glamorous corner of environmental engineering — but from cleaner rivers to lower carbon emissions to genuine resource recovery, its impact is profound.

As industries across water-stressed regions confront tighter regulations and shrinking freshwater reserves, the message is clear: invest in getting the fundamentals of filtration and dewatering right, and sustainability, compliance, and cost savings follow together.

التغيرالمناخي و الكوارث الطبيعية

By Rehan Ahmad | July 2, 2026 - 1:41 am |July 2, 2026 Climate Change, Environment, Nature

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ترتبط العديد من الكوارث الطبيعية مباشرة مع تغير المناخ بما فيها الفيضانات والأعاصير و موجات الحر والجفاف و حرائق الغابات والعواصف . وقد أودت مثل هذه الكوارث بحياة أكثر من 600,000 في العقدين الماضيين . تكرر و حجم هذه الكوارث في تزايد مع مرور الوقت و بدون استقرار حتى مع وجود خطط للحد من انبعاث الغازات المسببة للاحتباس الحراري (غازات الدفيئة ) و التوقيع على اتفاقية التغير المناخي في باريس.

سجل مكتب الأمم المتحدة للحد من مخاطر الكواثر, بمتوسط 335 كارثة متعلقة بالطقس بين عامي 2005 و 2014 ، أي بزيادة قدرها 14 ٪ مقارنة بين1995-2004 ، و تقريبا ضعف المستوى سجل خلال-1985 1995, ووفقا للتقرير ، فقد أصيب 4.1 مليار نسمة بلا مأوى أو كانوا في حاجة إلى مساعدة طارئة نتيجة للكوارث المرتبطة بالطقس بين عامي 1995-2015. حيث وقعت حوالي 332,000 حالة وفاة و تضرر 3.7 مليار شخص في آسيا وحدها. هذه الأرقام مقلقة و فتحت العين علينا جميعا لنفهم و لنستجيب لهذه المشكلة الملحة استنادا للفيضانات والعواصف وقد شكلت النسبة الاعلى في الوفيات الناجمة عن الكوارث الطبيعية المرتبطة بالطقس .

و وفقا للبيانات، شكلت الفيضانات 47 ٪ من جميع الكوارث المتعلقة بالطقس من1995-2015, مما أدى بالضرر على 2.3 مليار نسمة وبوفاة 157,000شخص. حيث تعد العواصف إحدى اخطر أنواع الكوارث المرتبطة بالطقس ، وهو ما يمثل 242,000 حالة وفاة أو 40 ٪ من الوفيات الناجمة عن الأحوال الجوية العالمية ، مع 89 ٪ من هذه الوفيات تحدث في الدول ذات الدخل المنخفض.

درجات الحرارة القصوى نتيجة لظاهرة الاحتباس الحراري الناجمة عن مقتل حوالي164,000 نسمة، منهم 148,000 حالة وفاة حوالي 92 ٪ ، وقد تسبب بسبب موجات الحر . حدثت 90٪ من الوفيات الناجمة عن موجات الحر في أوروبا وحدها . في روسيا ، قتل أكثر من 55,000 شخص نتيجة لموجة الحر في عام 2010 ، حيث بلغت الوفيات 70,000 في عام 2003 في أوروبا .

و وفقا للبنك الدولي: “النقاط الساخنة من الكوارث الطبيعية : لتحليل المخاطر العالمية ” تقرير صدر في مارس 2015 ، حيث وضح أن أكثر من 160 دولة لديها زيادة في عدد سكانها أكثر من الربع و بذلك احتمالية عدد الوفيات في تزايد بسبب الكوارث الطبيعية. شهد العقد الأول من القرن21،حوالي 3,496 من الكوارث الطبيعية شملت الفيضانات والعواصف, الجفاف و موجات الحر.

وفقا لمنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية ، فإن العالم معرضاً للخطر و الكوارث بما يقارب 5 أضعاف كما كان في 1970, بسبب المخاطر المتزايدة التي جلبها التغير المناخي. في العقد الماضي ارتفعت تكلفة الكوارث إلىbn 864 $, لذا نحن بحاجة إلى فهم أن التغيرات المناخية المنتشرة ليست موحدة في جميع أنحاء العالم. و من المتوقع ان يرتفع مستوى البحر في البلدان القريبة خط الاستواء بنسبة 10-15%, و في المناطق المنخفضة و الساحلية و الجزر الصغيرة مثل البحرين. فإن ارتفاع درجات الحرارة يتسبب في مزيد من الجفاف والفيضانات و ارتفاع مستوى سطح البحر ، والإجهاد الحراري ، والمزيد من استهلاك المياه ، والمزيد من متطلبات الطاقة و التبريد و انتشار الأمراض التي تنقلها المياه مثل الكوليرا و الإسهال. وهكذا, فإنه يؤثر علينا جميعا بغض النظر عن موقعنا والمكانة.

البحرين تفهم موقفها ، و اتخذت سباقاً تخطيط وتصميم للجهود المبذولة لمعالجة هذه المشكلة العالمية من خلال الاستثمار في البنى التحتية ، واستصلاح الآمن و إعداد خطط إدارة الكوارث لمواجهة الكوارث و تهديداتها . وقد حان وقت كل فرد ليبني عادات بيئية سليمة, و الحفاظ على الموارد الطبيعية المحدودة.

ترجمة

بدرية الكيومي/ تخصص علوم بيئية, عضو في جمعية البيئة العمانية

Soil Solarization: An Effective Method for Weed and Pest Control

By David Bainbridge | July 1, 2026 - 11:40 am |July 1, 2026 Agriculture, Pest Control

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Soil solarization heats the soil by covering it with clear polyethylene sheeting during hot periods to control soil borne diseases and weeds. The technique has been commercially exploited for growing high-value crops in diseased soils when maximum daily air temperatures regularly exceed 35°C. Farmers of the Deccan plateau in India have long exploited a form of solar heating of soil, by plowing the soil to expose the subsoil when maximum daily air temperatures usually exceed 40°C and soil temperature may reach 70°C. Studies have showed that 50°C will kill almost all weed seeds.

Using clear plastic makes it possible to heat the soil to 80°C to achieve better control of weeds and pathogens. The difference in soil heating between solarization and a control is shown in table 1. Moistening the soil improves heat transfer and improves weed and pathogen kill. Midsummer to fall has the highest performance.

In a preliminary test I found that bubble-pack sheet could help provide high temperatures with lower air temperatures. Double layers of plastic can also increase soil temperatures. Machines have been developed to lay plastic on large areas.

Table 1. Effects of solarization on maximum soil temperatures in °C (ICRISAT).

Soil depth Mean over Days

Treatment (cm) High test period >45°C

Solarization 5 54.1 49.9 48

Control 5 47.7 43.7 22

Although the major benefit of solarization is reduction of soil borne pathogens, especially verticillium and fusarium diseases, it also can control many weed and insect pests. A massive success in the Middle East has been the control of parasitic weeds like broomrape, that can devastate crops like tomatoes and cucumbers.

Studies have shown that solarizing soil effectively kills these seeds and can boost yields up to 98% In general. winter annual grasses seem to be especially sensitive to solarization, with control often evident for more than a year after treatment. More tropical weeds such as Bermuda grass and nutsedges are only partially controlled. Summer annuals, purslane and crabgrass, are also more resistant. Solarization can be used to promote germination and growth of weeds before cultivating during cool seasons. Adding compost and other soil amendments may improve control of the more resistant species.

Plants often grow faster and produce more (quality, size, and appearance) when grown in solarized compared to untreated soil, and has been found to increase plant growth and yield in following crops. This effect is greater than the benefits provided by pathogen and weed control, and is not fully understood.

Availability of nutrients may be increased substantially. Nitrate nitrogen NO₃-N almost tripled in the top 0-15 cm soil and doubled in the soil from 15-30 cm deep in an experiment at ICRISAT. Beneficial microorganisms (mycorrhizal fungi, actinomycetes, etc may survive the solarization process or recolonize rapidly and provide biological control of pathogens and pests or improve plant nutrition.

Soil solarization has been used in commercial planting. Soil solarization is well suited for a kitchen garden or raised beds. It can also be used to sterilize planting mix. Spread moist soil mix on a hard surface or tarp, cover with clear plastic sheeting during the hottest months.

Solarization can be used to prepare areas for wildflower planting around field borders. Archaeological sites represent challenging requirements for weed management. Soil solarization has been tested and found to be helpful. In experimental plots in Greece the soil solarization treatments significantly reduced weed growth during the winter weed flush period. The highest level of weed control was achieved with clear plastic during the summer solarization period, that had the highest recorded temperatures for the largest sum of hours (238 hours with T ≥ 40 °C).

For effective solarization, consider the following:

Solarization should be conducted for at least 4 and preferably 6 weeks during the hottest part of the year, longer with lower air temperatures.
The area to be solarized should be cultivated and leveled to minimize clods, stubble, and stones that might tear the polyethylene sheeting. Fertilizer and soil amendments can also be applied and tilled in before putting down the plastic.
Use clear, not black or colored sheets, of 1-2 mil (4 mil in very windy areas). Thinner plastic is more effective in heating the soil, but thickness should be balanced against durability. Wide sheeting to minimize joints is preferred. A roll of 2 mil 122m x 3m can cost as little as $25.
Plastics designed for large-scale solarization are often treated with an ultraviolet (UV) inhibitor so they will not break down as quickly in sunlight. Some will last for 4 years. When plastic with UV inhibitors is used the plastic can often be lifted and reused or left in place as a mulch during the growing season.
If possible 2-3 cm of irrigation should be applied just before laying the polyethylene sheeting. The moisture improves the heat capacity and heat transfer in the soil. It may also make pests or seeds more vulnerable to heating. 6. It is best to apply the sheeting at dawn, when it is least windy. The edges of adjacent polyethylene sheets should be inserted in the furrows. All free edges should be buried and the soil around them should be compacted to prevent escape of heated air or soil moisture. To prevent flapping and tearing of the sheeting in the wind weights should be placed on the sheeting. Plastic bags filled with soil work well. Bigger bags in windy areas where haboobs might develop. Consider where runoff will go in a summer rainstorm. Perhaps it can lead to rainwater harvesting.
It is desirable to have a buffer zone (about 1 m) around the area to be solarized because there is less heating near the edges. Sufficient space should also be provided between solarized areas for access, equipment operation, and drainage.
Holes in the polyethylene sheeting should be sealed at the earliest opportunity. Tape can be used. Holes can be recognized by absence of condensed moisture on the underside of the plastic.
Avoid walking on the plastic. Use bare feet or smooth-soled shoes while making repairs.
Remove the plastic when finished and let soil dry to a workable texture and cool off. The soil can be planted to a fall or winter crop or left fallow until spring. Removing potential weed seed sources around the field is desirable if the field will be fallow. If the soil is to be cultivated before planting, the cultivation should be shallow (less than 5 cm) to avoid moving viable weed seeds to the surface.

Soil solarization is not perfect. It does not work against all weeds and pathogens and requires the use of energy and petrochemicals to make the polyethylene. But it is clean, safe and often as effective as many dangerous herbicides and fungicides. In the weed and pathogen infested student garden at UC Riverside soil solarization worked better than the highly toxic METAM (Methyl Isothiocyanate (MITC) gas, a very toxic soil sterilant (banned in France) that is used to eliminate nematodes, fungal pathogens, germinating weed seeds, and soil insects.

Recycling of PET Plastic Bottles: An Overview

By Salman Zafar | June 30, 2026 - 8:04 pm |July 2, 2026 Waste Management, Environment

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Like all other modern urban centers, the Middle East also faces challenges in environmental protection due to tremendous generation of plastic waste produced in different forms. The total solid waste generation in the Middle East region exceeds 155 million tons per annum, out of which around 15 percent is contributed by plastic wastes. The burgeoning population, growing consumption, and an increasing trend towards a “disposable” culture, is causing nightmares to municipal authorities across the region and beyond.

Plastic consumption has grown at a tremendous rate over the past few decades as plastics now play an important role in all aspects of modern lifestyle. Plastics are used in the manufacture of numerous products such as protective packaging, lightweight and safety components in cars, mobile phones, insulation materials in buildings, domestic appliances, furniture items, medical devices etc.

Because plastic does not decompose biologically, the amount of plastic waste in our surroundings is steadily increasing. More than 90% of the articles found on the sea beaches contain plastic. PET plastic bottles are among the most objectionable kind of litter and will be visible for months in landfill sites without degrading.

PET Plastic Bottles Recycling Process

After PET plastic bottles are collected they must be sorted and prepared for sale. The amount and type of sorting and processing required will depend upon purchaser specifications and the extent to which consumers separate recyclable materials of different types and remove contaminants.

The collected PET plastic wastes are delivered to a materials recovery facility (MRF) to begin the recycling process. Sorting and grinding alone are not sufficient preparation of PET bottles and containers for re-manufacturing. There are many items that are physically attached to the PET bottle or containers that require further processing for their removal. These items include the plastic cups on the bottom of many carbonated beverage bottles (known as base cups), labels and caps.

Dirty regrind is processed into a form that can be used by converters. At a reclaiming facility, the dirty flake passes through a series of sorting and cleaning stages to separate PET from other materials that may be contained on the bottle or from contaminants that might be present. First, regrind material is passed through an air classifier which removes materials lighter than the PET such as plastic or paper labels and fines.

The flakes are then washed with a special detergent in a scrubber. This step removes food residue that might remain on the inside surface of PET bottles and containers, glue that is used to adhere labels to the PET containers, and any dirt that might be present.

Next, the flakes pass through a “float/sink” classifier. During this process, PET flakes, which are heavier than water, sink in the classifier, while base cups made from high-density polyethylene plastic (HDPE) and caps and rings made from polypropylene plastic (PP), both of which are lighter than water, float to the top.

After drying, the PET flakes pass through an electrostatic separator, which produces a magnetic field to separate PET flakes from any aluminum that might be present as a result of bottle caps and tennis ball can lids and rings. Once all of these processing steps have been completed, the PET plastic is now in a form known as “clean flake.” In some cases reclaimers will further process clean flake in a “repelletizing” stage, which turns the flake into “pellet.”

Clean PET flake or pellet is then processed by reclaimers or converters which transform the flake or pellet into a commodity-grade raw material form such as fiber, sheet, or engineered or compounded pellet, which is finally sold to end-users to manufacture new products.

Best Practices for the Operation and Maintenance of Seawater Desalination Plants

By Nadjib Drouiche | June 30, 2026 - 10:56 am |June 30, 2026 Water Management, Industry

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Seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination has become one of the most widely deployed technologies for securing potable water in water-scarce regions. Its rapid expansion is driven by technological maturity, modularity, and continuous improvements in energy efficiency. Despite these advances, the long-term performance of desalination plants is still strongly dependent on operation and maintenance (O&M) practices rather than on design alone. Extensive research has demonstrated that fouling, scaling, and operational instability remain the dominant causes of performance decline in full-scale SWRO plants, leading to increased energy consumption, reduced permeate quality, and higher life-cycle costs [1–3].

The global desalination sector has evolved significantly, with reverse osmosis now accounting for the majority of installed capacity worldwide. However, even with modern energy recovery devices and advanced membrane materials, specific energy consumption remains substantially higher than conventional surface water treatment processes, typically ranging between 3.5 and 4.5 kWh/m³ depending on feedwater conditions and plant configuration [4]. This energy demand is influenced not only by thermodynamic constraints but also by operational inefficiencies such as membrane fouling and suboptimal pretreatment.

A central determinant of SWRO performance is the quality of feedwater entering the system. Variations in turbidity, organic load, microbial activity, and seasonal algal blooms directly influence downstream membrane behaviour. The Silt Density Index (SDI) remains one of the most widely used operational indicators for assessing particulate fouling potential, although its limitations are well documented in recent literature [5]. Studies on full-scale plants have shown that inadequate pretreatment control significantly increases fouling rates and operational instability [6].

Pretreatment systems, typically consisting of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, media filtration, dissolved air flotation, or ultrafiltration, play a decisive role in stabilizing feedwater quality. Research has shown that dual-media filtration systems can achieve significant reductions in particulate fouling potential, including SDI and modified fouling index (MFI), often exceeding 80–90% removal efficiency for particulate matter [6]. However, biological and organic fouling precursors remain more difficult to control, with removal efficiencies often below 50%, especially when chlorine neutralization strategies are not properly optimized [6].

Recent investigations of full-scale SWRO desalination plants have confirmed that pretreatment inefficiencies are often linked to operational practices rather than design limitations. Membrane autopsy studies conducted in Red Sea desalination facilities have shown that improper cartridge filter replacement schedules and inadequate pretreatment control can significantly increase fouling deposition, including organic matter, biofilms, and inorganic particulate accumulation [7]. These findings highlight the importance of operational discipline and real-time monitoring of pretreatment performance indicators.

Once feedwater enters the reverse osmosis system, membrane fouling becomes the most critical operational challenge. Fouling is generally classified into four main categories: particulate, organic, biological, and inorganic scaling. Biofouling, in particular, is recognized as one of the most complex and difficult-to-control mechanisms in SWRO systems. It results from microbial attachment and biofilm formation on membrane surfaces, which leads to increased hydraulic resistance and reduced permeability [2,8].

Biofouling development is influenced by nutrient availability, temperature, hydrodynamic conditions, and residual disinfectants. Even under low nutrient concentrations, biofilms can form and progressively deteriorate system performance. Recent studies emphasize that biofouling control should rely primarily on preventive strategies rather than corrective actions, including optimized pretreatment, elimination of stagnation zones, and control of assimilable organic carbon [8].

In addition to biological fouling, inorganic scaling remains a major operational constraint. Scaling occurs when sparingly soluble salts such as calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, and barium or strontium compounds exceed their solubility limits and precipitate on membrane surfaces. Predictive tools based on saturation indices are widely used to anticipate scaling risks and optimize antiscalant dosing strategies. Research has shown that improper chemical dosing or inaccurate water chemistry assumptions can significantly accelerate scaling formation and reduce membrane lifespan [3].

Cleaning-in-place (CIP) operations are essential for restoring membrane performance; however, they are often misapplied in many plants. Industry experience and scientific studies indicate that CIP should not be performed at fixed intervals but rather triggered by operational thresholds such as a 10–15% decline in normalized permeate flow or a significant increase in differential pressure [2]. The effectiveness of chemical cleaning depends strongly on the nature of foulants, cleaning chemistry, temperature, and hydraulic conditions during the cleaning cycle. Early intervention has been shown to improve flux recovery and reduce irreversible fouling [2,3].

Energy efficiency remains a key performance indicator for SWRO plants. Despite significant technological progress, energy consumption is still dominated by high-pressure pumping requirements. Energy recovery devices (ERDs), particularly isobaric pressure exchangers, have significantly reduced energy consumption in modern desalination plants. Studies have demonstrated that ERDs can reduce specific energy consumption by up to 40–60%, making them a cornerstone of modern SWRO design [4,9].

However, energy efficiency is not solely a design parameter; it is strongly influenced by operational conditions. Membrane fouling increases transmembrane pressure, which directly raises energy consumption. Consequently, maintaining optimal membrane cleanliness is essential not only for production efficiency but also for energy optimization.

The transition toward digitalization and predictive maintenance represents a major evolution in desalination plant management. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems now enable continuous monitoring of thousands of operational parameters. Recent research highlights the potential of data-driven models for predicting fouling trends, optimizing chemical dosing, and scheduling maintenance interventions before performance degradation becomes critical [10].

Despite technological advances, human factors remain central to plant performance. Operator training, procedural discipline, and understanding of process fundamentals are essential for ensuring long-term reliability. Studies consistently show that plants with strong operational culture outperform technologically similar facilities with weaker operational governance [1,2].

Conclusion

The long-term sustainability of desalination systems depends on a holistic integration of engineering design, operational excellence, and adaptive management strategies. International experience demonstrates that the most successful plants are not necessarily those with the most advanced technologies, but those that implement rigorous and consistent operation and maintenance practices. In regions where desalination is a strategic water source, such as the Middle East, North Africa, and Southern Europe, strengthening O&M capacity is essential to ensuring water security, reducing lifecycle costs, and improving environmental performance.

References

[1] Elimelech, M., & Phillip, W. A. (2011). Science, 333, 712–717. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1200488
[2] Matin, A. et al. (2011). Desalination, 281, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.06.063
[3] Antony, A. et al. (2011). Journal of Membrane Science, 383, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2011.08.015
[4] Semiat, R. (2008). Environmental Science & Technology, 42, 8193–8201. https://doi.org/10.1021/es801330u
[5] Greenlee, L. F. et al. (2009). Water Research, 43, 2317–2348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.03.010
[6] Assessing Pretreatment Effectiveness in SWRO (2021). Water Research / PMC Study
[7] Full-scale SWRO membrane autopsy study (2020). Desalination
[8] Vrouwenvelder, J. S. et al. (2008). Water Research, 42, 4377–4387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2008.07.012
[9] Stover, R. L. (2007). Desalination, 203, 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.03.526
[10] Karimi, M., & Vatanpour, V. (2021). Journal of Water Process Engineering, 43, 102240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102240

7 Ways to Cut Energy Costs in Small Spaces

By Salman Zafar | June 27, 2026 - 10:21 pm |July 9, 2026 Energy, Environment, Home Improvements

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Global energy demand continues to rise and is expected to increase by 50% by 2050. This has raised concerns about environmental sustainability, and finding ways to cut energy costs has become a priority for many. Fortunately, there are several effective strategies that can be implemented to reduce energy consumption and lower energy bills in small spaces. By making changes to daily habits and adopting energy-saving technologies, you can achieve significant cost savings while contributing to a more sustainable future. From simple behavioral changes to the implementation of energy-efficient appliances like a single zone mini split system, our comprehensive guide can help you reduce energy consumption in small spaces.

1. Conduct an Energy Audit

Conducting an energy audit is an essential first step in identifying areas of energy waste and implementing effective energy-saving measures. By conducting a thorough assessment of your small space’s energy usage, you can identify specific areas where energy is being consumed inefficiently and develop a targeted plan for improvement.

Start by examining your utility bills to get an overview of your energy consumption patterns over time. Look for any noticeable trends or spikes in energy usage to help you identify areas that require immediate attention. Use energy monitoring devices, smart meters or apps to track real-time energy usage and identify any abnormal patterns or excessive energy consumption. These devices can provide valuable insights into your energy usage habits.

Next, inspect for any energy leaks or inefficiencies. Check for drafts around windows and doors, inadequate insulation and any areas where conditioned air may be escaping or outside air may be infiltrating. Additionally, assess your lighting fixtures, appliances and heating and cooling systems for outdated or inefficient models. Switch to energy-efficient models with high ENERGY STAR ratings.

2. Upgrade Your HVAC

Upgrading your HVAC system can improve your home’s energy savings. Older HVAC units tend to be less efficient and consume up to 50% more energy. Consider investing in energy-efficient options such as the MRCOOL mini split. MRCOOL DIY mini split systems offer advanced technologies to optimize performance. These include smartphone connectivity for precise temperature control and five operating modes to reduce energy consumption.

The system also offers an impressive 21 Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating (SEER). This is eight points above the nationally recommended minimum, resulting in substantial long-term energy savings.

3. Install a Programmable Thermostat

Installing a programmable thermostat is a simple yet effective way to save energy and reduce costs. With a programmable thermostat, you can set temperature schedules based on your daily routine. This ensures that your heating and cooling system operates efficiently when needed and adjusts to energy-saving temperatures when space is unoccupied.

For example, you can program the thermostat to lower the temperature during the hours when you’re away from home or asleep and raise it before you return or wake up. By reducing the temperature inside your home by approximately 10°F for at least eight hours, you can save up to 10% on your energy bills annually without sacrificing comfort. A programmable thermostat gives you the flexibility to customize your energy usage and optimize it according to your lifestyle.

4. Use Natural Lighting

Lighting can account for up to 15% of your home’s total energy costs. Rather than switching on overhead lighting or lamps during the day, maximize the natural light in your home. Natural lighting is a fantastic resource for small spaces, providing numerous benefits while helping cut energy costs. By harnessing the power of sunlight, you can create a bright and inviting atmosphere while minimizing the need for artificial lighting.

Position furniture, workstations, and areas where natural light is desired near windows. Keep drapes and blinds open during daylight hours to allow sunlight to flood the space. Install sheer curtains or light-filtering blinds that allow sunlight to penetrate while providing privacy. These window treatments soften harsh sunlight, reducing glare while still allowing ample natural light into the space.

When you do need to use artificial light, ensure you switch the bulbs in your home from incandescent to CFL or LED bulbs. These energy-efficient bulbs can save an average home up to $225 on your monthly energy bill. They also last longer, with CFL bulbs providing around 15,000 hours of illumination and LED bulbs giving 35,000 hours, compared to just 1,500 for incandescent bulbs.

5. Unplug Appliances When Not in Use

Standby power consumption, also known as vampire power, occurs when appliances and electronic devices, like televisions, computers, chargers and small kitchen appliances, continue to draw power even when not used. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, standby power can account for up to 10% of residential electricity usage, costing the average household as much as $100 per year.

Pull that plug!

To combat these unnecessary energy costs, unplug appliances when they are not actively being used. Common energy-draining culprits include televisions, computers, game consoles, chargers, kitchen appliances and audio systems. Plug multiple appliances into power strips with built-in on/off switches. This allows you to conveniently turn off the entire strip with a single switch, cutting off power to all connected appliances simultaneously. It’s especially useful for devices that are grouped together, such as entertainment systems or computer setups.

6. Reduce Water Heating Expenses

Reducing water heating expenses is a practical and effective way to lower energy costs in small spaces. Water heating accounts for around 20% of the energy costs in small homes. To reduce these expenses, consider insulating your pipes to minimize heat loss and maintain hot water temperatures for longer periods. Insulating hot-water pipes prevent heat from dissipating as the water travels from the water heater to the faucets or showers, resulting in less energy wasted on reheating water.

Most water heaters are set at a higher temperature than necessary. Lowering the temperature setting can result in energy savings. Aim for a temperature around 120°F which is still hot enough for most household needs while minimizing energy consumption. Leaky faucets, pipes or fixtures not only waste water but also lead to increased energy consumption. Fixing leaks promptly prevents hot water from being wasted and ensures that the water heater isn’t continuously working to reheat the water.

Replace old, inefficient appliances such as dishwashers with energy-efficient models that use less hot water. Additionally, consider installing low-flow showerheads and aerators on faucets to reduce hot water usage without compromising water pressure.

7. Improve Your Home’s Insulation

Proper insulation is essential for creating energy-efficient small spaces. Insulate walls, floors and ceilings to minimize heat transfer and maintain a comfortable indoor temperature. Insulation acts as a barrier that prevents heat from escaping during cold seasons and entering during hot seasons, reducing the need for excessive heating or cooling. Sealing air leaks around windows, doors and other openings can also prevent drafts and energy loss. Try using weatherstripping, caulk or insulation materials to seal these gaps effectively.

Improving insulation and sealing air leaks can help create a more energy-efficient environment and reduce heating and cooling costs by approximately 15%. Proper insulation keeps your space comfortable and contributes to long-term energy savings and a more sustainable lifestyle.

Small Homes, Big Savings: Take Charge of Your Energy Expenses Today!

Small homes may have limited space, but they offer immense potential for big savings when it comes to energy expenses. By taking charge of your energy usage and implementing smart strategies, you can reduce your energy consumption and lower your bills.

Through simple actions like maximizing natural lighting, unplugging appliances when not in use and adopting energy-efficient practices, you can make an impact on your energy savings. With determination, awareness and a commitment to energy efficiency, you can achieve big savings and create a better future for yourself and the planet.

The Reuse of Greywater: Insights

By Eyad Sahawneh | June 27, 2026 - 10:20 pm |July 1, 2026 Sustainable Development, Water Management

13 Comments

Greywater includes water from showers, bathtubs, sinks, kitchen, dishwashers, laundry tubs, and washing machines. The major components of greywater are soap, shampoo, grease, toothpaste, food residuals, cooking oils, detergents, hair etc. In terms of volume, greywater is the largest constituent of total wastewater flow from households.

In a typical household, 50-80% of wastewater is greywater, out of which laundry washing accounts for as much as 30% of the average household water use. The key difference between greywater and sewage (or black water) is the organic loading. Sewage has a much larger organic loading compared to greywater.

The Importance of Reuse of Greywater

If released directly into rivers, lakes and other water bodies, greywater can be a source of pollution which can affect marine life, human health, ecology etc. However, after appropriate treatment, greywater is suitable for irrigating lawns, gardens, ornamental plants and food crops, toilet flushing, laundry washing etc. Reusing grey water for irrigation and other non-potable water applications will help in reconnection of urban habitats to the natural water cycle, which will contribute significantly to sustainable urban development.

Reuse of greywater can help in substituting precious drinking water in applications which do not need drinking water quality such as industrial, irrigation, toilet flushing and laundry washing. This will, in turn, reduce freshwater consumption, apart from wastewater generation. For water-scarce regions, countries, such as the Middle East and Africa, greywater recycling can be instrumental in augmenting national water reserves. An increased supply for water can be ensured for irrigation thus leading to an increase in agricultural productivity.

The major benefits of greywater recycling can be summarized as:

Reduced freshwater extraction from rivers and aquifers
Less impact from wastewater treatment plant infrastructure
Nutrification of the topsoil
Reduced energy use and chemical pollution from treatment
Replenishment of groundwater
Increased agricultural productivity
Reclamation of nutrients
Improved quality of surface and ground water

How is Greywater Reused?

There are two main systems for greywater recycling – centralized or decentralized. In a decentralized system, greywater collected from one or more apartments is treated inside the house. On the other hand, a centralized system collects and treats greywater from several apartments or houses in a treatment plant outside the house.

Greywater reuse treatment systems can be simple, low-cost devices or complex, expensive wastewater treatment systems. An example of a simple system is to route greywater directly to applications such as toilet flushing and garden irrigation. A popular method for greywater reuse is to drain water from showers and washing machine directly for landscaping purposes. Modern treatment systems are complex and expensive advanced treatment processes comprised of sedimentation tanks, bioreactors, filters, pumps and disinfections units.

In order to transform greywater into non-potable water source, water from baths, showers, washbasins and washing machines has to be collected separately from black water, treated and eventually disinfected for reuse. Garden irrigation is the predominant reuse method for situations where greywater can be bucketed or diverted to the garden for immediate use.

Advanced greywater recycling systems collect, filter and treat greywater for indoor applications like toilet flushing or laundry washing. Greywater from laundry is easy to capture and the treated greywater can be reused for garden watering, irrigation, toiler flushing or laundry washing.

Water-efficient plumbing fixtures are vital when designing a household greywater reuse system. Some examples are low-flow shower heads, faucet flow restrictors, and low-flow toilets. Greywater systems are relatively easier to install in new building constructions as house or offices already constructed on concrete slabs or crawlspaces are difficult to retrofit.

Protection of public health is of paramount importance while devising any greywater reuse program. Although health risks of greywater reuse have proven to be negligible, yet greywater may contain pathogens which may cause diseases. Therefore, proper treatment, operation and maintenance of greywater recycling systems are essential if any infectious pathways should be intercepted.

The Popular Methods for Aluminium Recycling

By Salman Zafar | June 27, 2026 - 10:11 pm |June 30, 2026 Industry, Waste Management

18 Comments

The demand for aluminium products is growing steadily because of their positive contribution to modern living. Aluminium is the second most widely used metal whereas the aluminum can is the most recycled consumer product in the world. Aluminium finds extensive use in air, road and sea transport, food and medicine, packaging, construction, electronics and electrical power transmission.

The excellent recyclability of aluminium, together with its high scrap value and low energy needs during recycling make aluminium highly desirable to one and all. The global aluminium demand is forecasted to soar to nearly 70 million tons by 2020 from around 37 million tons currently.

Recycling of Aluminium

Global aluminium recycling rates are high, with approximately 90 per cent of the metal used for transport and construction applications recovered, and over 60 per cent of used beverage cans are collected.

Aluminium does not degrade during the recycling process, since its atomic structure is not altered during melting. Aluminium recycling is both economically and environmentally effective, as recycled aluminium requires only 5% of the energy used to make primary aluminium, and can have the same properties as the parent metal. Infact, aluminium can be recycled endlessly without loss of material properties.

During the course of multiple recycling, more and more alloying elements are introduced into the metal cycle. This effect is put to good use in the production of casting alloys, which generally need these elements to attain the desired alloy properties.The industry has a long tradition of collecting and recycling used aluminium products.

Over the years, USA and European countries have developed robust separate collection systems for aluminium packaging with a good degree of success. Recycling aluminium reduces the need for raw materials and reduces the use of valuable energy resources. Recycled aluminium is made into aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, boats, computers, cookware, gutters, siding, wire and cans.

How are Aluminium Cans Recycled?

Aluminum can is the most recycled consumer product in the world. Each year, the aluminum industry pays out more than US$800 million for empty aluminum cans. Recycling aluminium cans is a closed-loop process since used beverage cans that are recycled are primarily used to make beverage cans. Recycled aluminium cans are used again for the production of new cans or for the production of other valuable aluminium products such as engine blocks, building facades or bicycles.

In Europe about 50% of all semi-fabricated aluminium used for the production of new beverage cans and other aluminium packaging products comes from recycled aluminium.

The major steps in aluminium can recycling are as follows:

Step 1: Aluminium cans are collected from recycling centers, community drop-off sites, curbside pick-up spots etc.

Step 2: Compressed into highly dense briquettes or bales at scrap processing facilities and shipped to aluminum companies for melting.

Step 3: Condensed cans are shredded, crushed and stripped of their inside and outside dyes. The potato chip-sized pieces are loaded into melting furnaces, where the recycled metal is blended with brand new aluminum.

Step 4: Molten aluminum is converted into ingots which are fed into rolling mills that reduce the thickness to about 1/100 of an inch.

Step 5: This metal is then coiled and shipped to can manufacturers. The cans are then delivered to beverage companies for filling.

Step 6: The new cans, filled with your favorite beverages, are then returned to store shelves in as little as 60 days … and the recycling process begins again!

Recycling of Aluminium Packaging

Aluminium packaging fits every desired recycling and processing route. Aluminium packaging needs to be separated from other packing material when intended for material recycling. A growing number of sorting facilities are equipped with eddy current separators which offer a comprehensive means of sorting the aluminium fraction.

Multi-material packaging systems may consist of plastics, tinplate, beverage cartons and paper packaging, apart from aluminium packaging, e.g. beverage cartons. A variety of systems have been developed to extract aluminium from complex packaging systems, such as repulping, mechanical separation and pyrolysis.

In pyrolysis, the non-metallic components are removed from the aluminium by evaporation. A newer technology is the thermal plasma process where the three components – aluminium, plastic and paper – are separated into distinct fractions.

Aluminium from Urban Wastes

Aluminium exposed to fires at dumps can be a serious environmental problem in the form of poisonous gases and mosquito breeding. Recycled aluminium can be utilized for almost all applications, and can preserve raw materials and reduce toxic emissions, apart from significant energy conservation.

Aluminium can also be extracted from the bottom ashes of municipal solid waste incinerators as aluminium nodules. In many European countries, municipal solid waste is entirely or partly incinerated; in this case the contained thin gauge aluminium foil is oxidized and delivers energy while thicker gauges can be extracted from the bottom ash.

Renewable Energy Investment in Jordan

By Salman Zafar | June 27, 2026 - 9:56 pm |June 30, 2026 Finance, Middle East, Renewable Energy

1 Comment

Jordan has tremendous wind, solar and biomass energy potential which can only be realized by large-scale investments. In 2007, the Government of Jordan developed an integrated and comprehensive Energy Master Plan. Renewable energy accounted for only 1% of the energy consumption in Jordan in 2007. However, ambitious targets have been set in the Master Plan to raise the share to 7% in 2015 and 10% in 2020.

This transition from conventional fuels to renewable energy resources will require capital investments, technology transfer and human resources development, through a package of investments estimated at US $ 1.4 – 2.2 billion. The investment package includes Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) deals for wind energy with a total capacity of 660 MW and solar energy plants of 600 MW. This will be paralleled with the reduction of energy produced from oil from 58% currently to 40% in 2020.

As most of the clean energy technologies require high capital cost, investments in wind, solar and waste-to-energy plants will be possible only with appropriate support from the Government. Notably, the Government has expressed its readiness to provide necessary support within the framework of available resources.

The Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MOPIC), is responsible for coordinating and directing developmental efforts in coordination with the public and private sectors, and civil society organizations. MOPIC is actively seeking support for renewable energy and energy efficiency initiatives through continuous cooperation with international partners and donors.

Jordan has significant strengths in the form of renewable energy resources, a developed electricity grid, strong legal and intellectual property protections, a market-friendly economy and a skilled workforce. So it is well positioned to participate in the expanding cleantech industry. The best prospects for electricity generation in Jordan are as Independent Power Producers (IPPs). This creates tremendous opportunities for foreign investors interested in investing in electricity generation ventures.

Jordan enacted a Renewable Energy Law in 2010 which provides for legislative framework for the cleantech sector. The main aim of the law is to facilitate domestic and international projects and streamline the investment process. The Law permits and encourages the exploitation of renewable energy sources at any geographical location in the Kingdom.

In April 2012, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources announced that it has qualified 34 international and local companies for investment in renewable energy projects, with an overall capacity reaching 1000 MW. Of the qualified companies, 22 companies will invest in solar power projects and the rest in wind energy.

Keeping in view the renewed interest in renewable energy, there is a huge potential for international technology companies to enter the Jordan market. There is very good demand for wind energy equipment, solar power units and waste-to-energy systems which can be capitalized by technology providers and investment groups from around the world.

Litani River: A Sorry State of the Affairs

By Nouhad Awwad | June 27, 2026 - 9:47 pm |July 11, 2026 Middle East, Pollution Abatement, Water Management

4 Comments

The Litani River, the largest river in Lebanon, faces a multitude of environmental problems. Due to decades of neglect and mismanagement, the river has become heavily polluted. The main contributors to the degradation of Litani River are industrial pollution from factories and slaughterhouse, untreated sewage, chemicals from agriculture runoffs and disposal of municipal waste. The pollution has reached such a level where it is obvious to the human eye and causing serious health issues for people drinking its contaminated water.

The Litani River is a source of income for many families who use it in summer for many recreational activities; moreover, it is used for irrigation. On the banks of the Litani River, many hydroelectric and electric projects have been set up. The Lebanese government had made a dam that is linked to a hydroelectric power plant of 185MW capacity. The dam had been responsible for the formation of Qaraoun Lake; a polluted man-made lake.

In 2016, the World Bank approved a loan of $55 million to address the wastewater and agricultural runoff along the lake and the river. The problem of the fund is that they did not give a bigger investment to agricultural runoff. The Litani provides irrigation to 80% of agriculture lands in Bekaa and 20% in south Lebanon.

Many agricultural projects were implemented on the basin as Joun project and Al-Qasmieh project. Farmers are using the fertilizers and pesticides that are polluting the river with chemicals. On the other hand, farmers are impacted by the water they are using to irrigate their crops since it is polluted with chemicals and full of soil, gravel and sand.

Serious and concerted efforts are urgently required to restore Litani River to its lost glory

Serious and concerted efforts are urgently required to restore Litani River to its lost glory. Two years ago, the Lebanese government announced $730 million project to clean up the pollution of Qaraoun Lake and Litani river. The seven years ambitious plan is divided into four components: $14 million will go to solid waste treatment, $2.6 million for agricultural pollution, $2.6 million for industrial pollution and $712 million for sewage treatment. However, there has been very little progress in implementing these project.

The Way Forward

In order to save the Litani River, here are few steps that must be taken urgently:

Establish a sewage system especially for the new refugee camps near the river basin.
Promote measures to tackle the industrial pollution.
Stop industrial effluents from polluting the River.
Establish waste treatment plants in the area.
Hire staff to operate existing wastewater treatment plants. For example Zahle plant that lacks staff to operate.
Build water treatment facilities for the local communities.

Small steps can effectively reduce the pollution and restore the lost glory of the Litani River. Thousands of people volunteered to clean up the Litani River on the national day of the Litani River. This took place after there was a huge online campaign titled “Together to Save the Litani River” initiated by activists. Thousands of people engaged online and then onsite to fish out rubbish; bulldozers removed accumulated sands and mud in the river from nearby sand quarries.

Water Crisis in Refugee Camps

By Amir Dakkak | June 27, 2026 - 9:33 pm |July 4, 2026 Middle East, Water Management

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The refugee crisis has hit record heights in recent years. According to the UNHCR, as of the end of 2019 there were approximately 79.5 million refugees worldwide. This is a significant increase from a decade ago, when there were 37.5 million refugees worldwide.

Syria’s ongoing civil war, with 7.6 million people displaced internally, and 3.88 million people displaced into the surrounding region and beyond as refugees, has alone made the Middle East the world’s largest producer and host of forced displacement. Adding to the high totals from Syria are displacements of at least 2.6 million people in Iraq and 309,000 in Libya. This significant increase in refugees has only escalated the need for specific water quality and quantity regulations for refugee camps.

Water Shortages in Refugee Camps

A human being can survive a week without food but cannot live more than three days without water. While the abundance of water in our daily lives means most of us take it for granted, the reality on the ground is that millions around the world suffer from lack of access to water – many of which are refugees. Refugee camps often do not have enough water to supply all refugees residing within them.

Majority of refugee camps in the world are unable to provide the recommended daily water minimum of 20 liters water per person per day. In addition, many countries holding refugees are water-scarce. Jordan, for example, is one of the top 10 water-scarce countries in the world and holds more than 1.4 million refugees (mainly from Syria). This has caused tremendous strain on the country’s very low water resources, making it extremely difficult to supply sufficient water for refugees. However the biggest reason behind lack of water at refugee camps across the globe is the lack of water infrastructure.

The lack of water infrastructure makes it very difficult to transport sufficient amounts of water, and provide proper sanitation to all residents of a refugee camp. In fact, a recent study by the Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation showed that the country’s sewerage network are being overflowed and are subsequently leaking due to the increase in the number of refugees.

Furthermore, studies have shown that water borne diseases are more persistently present when the minimum water requirement (20 liters per person) is not met simply because there is less water for sanitation and cleaning purposes. That is why it is absolutely vital that governments ensure that recommended daily water minimum is provided to all refugees.

Water Quality Issues

Poor quality of water in refugee camps has created a “crisis within a crisis” causing outbreaks of waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid and hepatitis. This is due to misuse of the water quality regulations present and the lack of time available to implement these regulations on water quality in refugee camps.

In refugee camps, surface water is usually treated in three steps:

Sedimentation: The water is stored for a few hours so that the biggest particles can settle to the bottom.
Filtration: It is then necessary to get rid of the small, invisible particles by filtering the water through sand filters.
Chlorination: The last stage, chlorine solution is added to the water which kills all the microorganisms.

Groundwater, on the other hand, is generally subjected to chlorination. These techniques seem to be sufficient to provide an acceptable quality of drinking water. However, according to Syed Imran Ali, an environmental engineer affiliated with UC Berkley, who worked extensively in refugee camps across Africa and the Middle East, the amount of chlorine used to purify the water is not sufficient enough to completely eliminate all the bacteria in the water used in refugee camps.

The reason being that the current emergency guidelines on free residual chlorine concentrations (0.2 – 0.5 mg/L in general, 0.8 – 1.0 mg/L during outbreaks) are based on conventions from municipal piped-water systems (i.e. used in cities) rather than refugee camps.

A study conducted by Ali in South Sudan, where there was an outbreak of hepatitis E and other waterborne diseases, showed that the decay of chlorine added to drinking water is much faster in refugee camps than it is under urban conditions, and within 10-12 hours of household storage and use the chlorine all but disappears.

Within a refugee camp, water is distributed from one point within the camp, carried to homes via containers and then stored and used over 24 hours or more. Therefore, due to all these different factors the guidelines used may not be sufficient enough to maintain an acceptable quality of water in all refugee camp settings.

Refugee camps must have specific guidelines created to deal with the water quality provided within the camps to prevent outbreaks and improve livelihood within the refugee camps. In his study in South Sudan, Ali recommended that guidelines for chlorination control to be revised to 1.0 mg/l in the camps there rather than 0.2 – 0.5 mg/l. This would provide protection of at least 0.2 mg/l for up to 10 hours post-distribution, which is consistent with the recommended concentration for point-of-use water chlorination in emergency and nonemergency settings and is within the WHO limits generally considered to be acceptable to users (2.0 mg/L).

Time to Act

With the refugee situation worsening and no permanent solution to this crisis in sight, the minimum that can be done is to provide an adequate amount and quality of water for these refugees. The current water purification techniques are not efficient enough to protect refugees from all harmful bacteria. There are a variety of ways that water can be provided.

Wastewater treatment, rainwater harvesting, humidity harvesting, among others are sustainable sources of water. However, providing water is not sufficient; water quality is just as important as water quantity. There must be water quality regulations specific to refugee camps that take into account the different aspects that might affect the quality of water (transport, storage, temperature).

If things are to improve, it is absolutely vital for concerned governments, aid agencies, NGOs, volunteers etc. to band together and create water quality guidelines specific to refugee camps and that are capable to withstand different aspects within these camps. Without these guidelines, the condition of refugees will continue to worsen, and the refugees will continue to flee to Western countries in search of better living conditions.

Agricultural Biomass Resources in the MENA Countries

By Salman Zafar | June 27, 2026 - 9:22 pm |July 3, 2026 Agriculture, Middle East, Renewable Energy

5 Comments

Agriculture plays an important role in the economies of most of the countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Despite the fact that MENA is the most water-scarce and dry region in the world, many countries in the region, especially those around the Mediterranean Sea, are highly dependent on agriculture.

The contribution of the agricultural sector to the overall economy varies significantly among countries in the region, ranging, for example, from about 3.2 percent in Saudi Arabia to 13.4 percent in Egypt. Large scale irrigation coupled with mechanization has enabled extensive production of high-value cash crops, including fruits, vegetables, cereals, and sugar in the Middle East.

The term ‘crop residues’ covers the whole range of biomass produced as by-products from growing and processing crops. Crop residues encompasses all agricultural wastes such as bagasse, straw, stem, stalk, leaves, husk, shell, peel, pulp, stubble, etc.

Wheat and barley are the major staple crops grown in the Middle East region. In addition, significant quantities of rice, maize, lentils, chickpeas, vegetables and fruits are produced throughout the region, mainly in Egypt, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, Morocco and Jordan.

Egypt is the one of world’s biggest producer of rice and cotton and produced about 3.9 million tons of rice and 68,000 tons of cotton in 2023. Infact, crop residues are considered to be the most important and traditional source of domestic fuel in rural Egypt. The total amount of crop wastes in Egypt is estimated at about 16 million tons of dry matter per year. Cotton residues represent about 9% of the total amount of residues. These are materials comprising mainly cotton stalks, which present a disposal problem. The area of cotton crop cultivation accounts for about 5% of the cultivated area in Egypt.

Date palm is one of the principal agricultural products in the arid and semi-arid region of the world, especially Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The Arab world has more than 84 million date palm trees with the majority in Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and United Arab Emirates.

Date palm trees produce huge amount of agricultural wastes in the form of dry leaves, stems, pits, seeds etc. A typical date tree can generate as much as 20 kilograms of dry leaves per annum while date pits account for almost 10 percent of date fruits. Some studies have reported that Saudi Arabia alone generates more than 200,000 tons of date palm biomass each year.

Agricultural output is central to the Tunisian economy. Major crops are cereals and olive oil, with almost half of all the cultivated land sown with cereals and another third planted. Tunisia is one of the world’s biggest producers and exporters of olive oil, and it exports dates and citrus fruits that are grown mostly in the northern parts of the country.

To sum up, large quantities of crop residues are produced annually in the MENA region, and are vastly underutilised. Current farming practice is usually to plough these residues back into the soil, or they are burnt, left to decompose, or grazed by cattle. These residues could be processed into liquid fuels or thermally processed to produce electricity and heat in rural areas. Energy crops, such as Jatropha, can be successfully grown in arid regions for biodiesel production. Infact, Jatropha is already grown at limited scale in some Middle East countries and tremendous potential exists for its commercial exploitation.

The Hidden Weight of Wastewater

Filtration: The First Line of Environmental Defense

Sludge: From Costly Burden to Recoverable Resource

Building a Circular Water Strategy

Practical Steps for Facility Managers

Recommended Reading

PET Plastic Bottles Recycling Process

Conclusion

References

1. Conduct an Energy Audit

2. Upgrade Your HVAC

3. Install a Programmable Thermostat

4. Use Natural Lighting

5. Unplug Appliances When Not in Use

6. Reduce Water Heating Expenses

7. Improve Your Home’s Insulation

Small Homes, Big Savings: Take Charge of Your Energy Expenses Today!

The Importance of Reuse of Greywater

How is Greywater Reused?

Recycling of Aluminium

How are Aluminium Cans Recycled?

Recycling of Aluminium Packaging

Aluminium from Urban Wastes

The Way Forward

Water Shortages in Refugee Camps

Water Quality Issues

Time to Act

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