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Nabatea and The Neglected Global Energy Crises

By David Bainbridge | September 9, 2024 - 12:48 pm |February 5, 2026 Energy, Indigenous Knowledge, Middle East, Sustainable Development

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Climate change is bringing new challenges to communities around the world. These include nearly three billion people worldwide who depend on solid fuels for household cooking and heating.^[i] In Africa, the proportion of residents dependent on solid fuels is increasing and is almost 80%. In Southeast Asia, 61% of the population still utilize solid fuels. More than a third of the people in the Eastern Mediterranean also use solid fuel—primarily wood and charcoal. Social unrest and natural disasters can lead to years long power outages that force everyone back to the basics of fuel wood and charcoal.^[ii] With permanent reconstruction of the devastated power grid of Puerto Rico still pending seven years after hurricane damage, outages have become longer and more recurrent in recent years.^[iii]

Lessons from the past can help improve energy and resource management today and for the future. The ancient Nabataeans used a wide range of energy resources. Their expertise enabled the capital city of Petra to prosper and support as many as 30,000 people two thousand years ago. Much can be learned from their energy management. While some studies of energy use at that time in Rome and Pompeii have been done, the analysis of energy use in the provinces away from Rome has lagged.^[iv]

The energy needs of the Nabataeans were met with a wide range of resources and this diversity provided resilience in the face of climate variability and social change. The primary energy resources were biofuels with no net impact on climate change gases. Their complex energy system provided some protection against scarcity caused by drought, locusts, wildfire, war or disease. The primary energy sources included fuelwood, shrubwood and prunings, olive oil, olive pomace, grape vine prunings, charcoal, dung, food and fodder.

Many of these biofuels are little-studied and not widely understood or promoted today. A better understanding of these resources can help families and communities in Ethiopia, Sudan, Syria, Mali, Mexico, Lebanon, India, Nigeria, Chile, Laos and many other countries and regions where people still rely on these fuels.^[v] The Nabataean’s expertise can be of use for many today to more sustainably manage energy while restoring forests and shrublands.^[vi]

Fuelwood

Wood was one of the most important sources of energy for the households, visitors, and businesses in Nabatea. The gross caloric potential of fuelwood is around 20 GigaJoules per ton of dry wood^[vii] (a gigajoule is about equal to 26 liters of gasoline or 277 kilowatt hours). Nabatean fuel woods included oak, pistachio, juniper, hawthorne and other trees. The Nabataean demand for fuelwood and timber eventually eliminated most of the Jordanian forests. Repeated cutting with resprouting (coppicing) can work if the harvest is not too severe or repeated too often. Oaks (Quercus sp.) (baluwt) were preferred fuel wood and also provide food.^[viii] Acorns are still harvested and eaten in many places including Portugal, the American Southwest, and Korea.^[ix]

We don’t know for certain how much fuelwood they used, but we can look at comparable areas where fuel wood was the primary energy source. A study in the American Southwest found annual fuelwood consumption in Cochise County, Arizona in the late 1800s was about 2 cubic meters or 1.5 tons per capita.^[x]^,^[xi] Detailed studies of the potential fuelwood harvest from a comparable blue oak woodlands in California found it could provide about 10 tons of fuelwood per hectare.^[xii] Thousands of hectares would have been cut every year to support the Nabatean capital and towns. Making charcoal at 10-20% efficiency would consume even more trees.

Camels or donkeys could bring fuelwood from sources far from town. A camel could carry 200 kg, a mule 150, and a donkey 25-50. Carts may also have been used on the high road Via Nova Traiana. People would carry fuelwood in as well. The forests would have gotten smaller and more barren year by year If we could go back in time, we would likely see ‘wood’ roads reaching out from Petra. As a resident of Tombstone, Arizona, noted in the late 1800s, “There were wood roads fanning out from Tombstone like the veins of a leaf, some were just tracks, others well worn.”^[xiii] When the demand for fuelwood is very high the roots of trees and shrubs are dug up and burned.^[xiv] Roots can be good fuelwood but their removal eliminates the possibility of resprouts and increases the risk of erosion, floods and landslides. As fuelwood costs rose, the use of prunings, pomace, dung, and imported fuels would have intensified.

Looking at the highlands and mountains of Jordan today it is hard to imagine the forests of pistachio, juniper, oak, cypress and other drought-tolerant trees and shrubs that once graced the hillsides and wadis.^[xv]. The forests and woodlands have been severely reduced by human activity.^[xvi]^,^[xvii] But they can and should be restored.^[xviii]

Shrub Wood and Pruning

Some shrub species were much better fuels than others and were also over-harvested. The nitrogen fixing Retama raetam has been a highly desirable fuel for cooking and heating from ancient times. Retam shrubs could provide 2-15 kg of wood each.^[xix] If a household relied on shrub wood they might use 10 kg of shrubs from a hectare every month.^[xx] The capital city of Petra alone might have used 4,000 ha of shrubs a year. Retam was also favored because it was not grazed heavily, but would be eaten by camels. Artemisia sieberi (sheeh) is still stockpiled in some areas for cooking fuel.^[xxi] Research has made it clear that restoring healthy shrub lands is possible with water harvesting and grazing management. Within five years after planting there can be a considerable harvest every year. Multipurpose species are preferred. They can provide fuel, food, fodder and medicine.

Olive trees and other fruit and nut trees in the Nabataean agroforestry system were pruned regularly. The heating value of olive pruning debris ranged from 16.7 GJ/ton to 19.8 GJ/ton.^[xxii] Olive orchards will yield 1-4 tons of olive pruning per hectare or about 50 GJ ha. However, soil health will decline if most of the organic matter is removed every year.

Nabataean wine was traded overseas and achieved a formidable international reputation. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, dated around 280 CE, contains a contract for labor in a vineyard.^[xxiii] Grapevines are pruned to improve yield and quality. The energy content of grapevine prunings ranges from to 7-18 GJ/ton. The fuel quality depends on the cultivar, the season, and management. The basket method (kouloura) of pruning is ideally suited to arid, windy sites, and might have been used.^[xxiv]^,^[xxv] Pruning might amount to 1.4-1.8 tons per hectare^[xxvi] for perhaps 19 GJ/ha. Vine prunings are still used for heating and as fuel in bakery and restaurant ovens.^[xxvii] Vine prunings are the preferred fuel for piglet roaster restaurants in the Bairrada region of Portugal.^[xxviii]

Olive oil, Olive Pressing Waste (pomace, Jift)

Olives were an essential resource in Nabatea and olive presses have been found at almost all agricultural production sites in Jordan.^[xxix] Thirty-one presses^[xxx] were identified in the Brown University Petra Archeological Project.^[xxxi] An ancient receipt from Umm al-Biyara and abundant traces of Nabataean agroforestry suggest the main commodity being produced was not grain but olives. Olive trees were planted on slopes and terraces as well as in more favorable locations. Olive trees were also grown within the towns and cities.^[xxxii] Wild subtypes of olives (Olea europaea subsp. oleaster) are still found in the area.^[xxxiii]

The olives were collected, crushed, and pressed to release the oil.^[xxxiv] Olive oil has an energy content of 39 GJ/ton.^[xxxv] The old, traditional olive production system in dry-farmed areas around the Mediterranean uses tree spacing from 7.6–18.3 meters apart with 30–173 trees/ha.^[xxxvi] Olive yields were between 1.1–4.5 t/ha with a long delay before full production (15–40 years) and significant changes in yield due to alternate bearing.

On average 100 kg of olives will produce 14-20 kg of oil. Each 1,000 kg of olives brought in to a mill may also result in 500 kg of olive pomace (jift).^[xxxvii] The amount and the oil content of the jift depend on the growing season, ripeness, cultivar, crushing method and type of press. Jift is well suited for heating and cooking as well as firing pottery and lime kilns.^[xxxviii] The caloric value of jift runs from 17-24 GJ/ton.^[xxxix] Olive pits also burn well with 19 GJ/ton.^[xl]

Traditional rain-fed olive plantations could yield 3.5-7 tons of jift per hectare each year. Olive orchards would provide jift for use at homes, bakeries, potteries, and lime-makers. Replanting the olive groves with water harvesting should be possible. In other countries native multipurpose trees with fruits, nuts, pollen and nectar for bees, and other resources can be substituted.

Charcoal

Charcoal was used for cooking, heating water and coffee, space heating, metalwork, and smelting in Nabatea. Charcoal was expensive and this limited its use in pottery kilns. But olive pits were used as a fuel and were found in the Zurrabah kiln excavations.^[xli] Charcoal would have been made in both pits and mounds. Oak was preferred, but other species and most small shrubs and prunings could be used. A ton of branches or shrubs could yield as much as 150 to 250 kg of charcoal.^[xlii]

Charcoal vendors probably imported significant amounts of charcoal to the capital city, but competition for charcoal by the copper mining and smelting area of Feinan may have kept the price high . Like Rome, charcoal and wood would have been taken to a central market in Petra and sold, first by wholesalers to retailers who could afford to buy relatively large quantities, and then to individual householders, who could not. Records show that in 301 CE Rome the wholesale cost of a mule load of 140 kg of firewood was the same as a retail bundle of just 7 kg.^[xliii] A profitable return!

The Bedou ‘Ammareen (sub-clan of al-Sa’idiyeen) of the Petra region were known in the nineteenth century for their charcoal trade with Egypt.^[xliv] Charcoal could provide a small source of cash for individuals as well. One of EA’s friend’s grandfather would chop down a Pistacia atlantica while traveling, make charcoal, then trade it and wild game for soap, tea, sugar, and other household goods in Nablus (350 km away). Charcoal production undoubtedly contributed to the deforestation across Nabatea. Charcoal has received more attention than other biofuels, but much more could be done.^[xlv]

Dung

Animal dung has been used for heating, cooking, and firing pottery in many areas of the world.^[xlvi] Camels played an essential role for most of the Nabatean era.^[xlvii] A camel will produce about 8 kg per day.^[xlviii] It is dry and odorless and has an energy value of 12-14 GJ/ton.^[xlix] Camels were essential in the spice trade caravans and a caravan might have hundreds or even thousands of camels. Camels were also bred and trained for war and the Nabatean cavalry may have had thousands of camels in service. These numbers were not matched again until WWI when the Imperial Camel Corps had 20,000 camels.^[l]

Donkey dung is also fairly dry and odorless. Sheep, goats and oxen dung are also useful fuels when dried. In preparation for cooking bread or meals an oven, even today, may be heated overnight with slabs of sheep dung set around the exterior. In some areas women would store large supplies of this sheep dung.

Animal dung can be used to fire pottery without kilns in a process called bon-firing (aka clamp firing, raku). Sheep dung has been used this way by ancient and modern potters in the American Southwest.^[li] Pots fired in the domestic hearth may leave no trace.^[lii] Potters in villages in northern Jordan still make pottery this way.^[liii] Bon-firing temperatures in a range of studies have reached between 600-900°C.^[liv] Dung would also be in demand as a fertilizer for gardens and crops and burning much of the dung would eventually result in diminished soil fertility and crop yields.

Food for people

The agroforestry system developed in Nabatea was a complex mix of olives, grape vines, fruits, vegetables and grains.^[lv] Wheat cultivars and barley were the important grains. The yield of emmer wheat might have been 1-3 tons per hectare. The city of Petra needed 15 tons of wheat a day and 5,000 tons a year. Grain imports probably came from the Negev highlands or even further away. Studies suggest the total area of agricultural fields in the Central Negev Highlands may well have been more than 4,000 ha.^[lvi] Harvests over hundreds of years with little return of micronutrients to the soil no doubt led to lower yield and less nutritious crops.^[lvii] The water harvesting techniques they developed and used to grow crops in the desert are needed around the world.^[lviii]

Fodder for Animals

Most of the energy demand for the animals in Nabatea was met by open grazing. Grains might be fed at times. The soils around towns and cities were quickly laid bare by intensive grazing but highly mobile herds could seek out the best pasture even many kilometers from towns. Edible shrubs and tree seedlings would gradually disappear. Browse lines would be clear on shrubs and trees.

Overview: How Nabatean energy demand was met

Household uses: Fuelwood, shrub wood, charcoal, pomace, pruning, dung, solar energy, olive oil, etc.

Bread and Bakery: Fuelwood, shrub wood, pomace, pruning, dung

Cooking and lighting: Fuelwood, shrub wood, charcoal, pomace, olive oil

Heating and hypocaust heating: Fuelwood, charcoal, pomace

Pottery: pomace, olive pits, pruning

Smelting: Charcoal from fuelwood and shrub wood

Food for animals: Browse and feed

Food for people: Wheat, barley and other foods

Olive oil for food and lighting

Burning these fuels in the confined wadis, towns and capital would have led to significant air pollution problems. On a still day in winter it would have been very smoky. This would have adverse health impacts.

Nabataean energy use was ultimately not sustainable, but the remarkable performance of their resource management over the centuries is impressive and in many ways has never been duplicated. The take away lessons from Nabatea is to make full use of water, ’wastes’ as resources, anda wide range of species. This complexity increases resilience. Hopefully this first attempt at understanding energy use in Nabatea will lead to more detailed research providing revelations as informative as those from the engineering analysis of the water system of Petra.^[lix]

Application of Nabataean soil and water management strategies could double or triple the current wheat and barley yield per hectare in Jordan. Today, Jordan produces only 100,000 tons of wheat a year with yields of just a ton per hectare.^[lx] In contrast, the Nabateans used a wheat variety that may have produced 3.5 tons/ha in the Negev.^[lxi] Rediscovering the Nabataean expertise could help keep some of the money now spent importing grain in Jordan in Jordan, reducing vulnerability and creating jobs. Mobile kilns and briquette makers could produce high quality charcoal from shrub wood and prunings.

Supporting rediscovery of the complex agroforestry systems developed in Petra could help olive and fruit and nut growers, vineyards, and farms prosper while improving biodiversity and providing renewable biofuels.^[lxii]^,^[lxiii] The issue of securing local energy supplies is often critical for areas and countries with limited supplies of fossil fuel. Countrywide and regional instability around the world makes local self-reliance ever more important.

The restoration of shrubs and trees can result in more local, renewable biofuels and will also sequester carbon.^[lxiv] Restoration of trees, shrubs and crops will also reduce the risk from flash floods. Better control of grazing with revived use of the hima system can foster recovery of ecosystems.^[lxv]

Social factors, economic pressure, tenure (land use rights), and neglect of the value of Nature’s Services have also rarely been considered. Some of the critical social aspects of ancient Petra are unknowable due to a lack of records. Obstacles to the spread and adoption of innovative systems are often complex, but not insoluble.^[lxvi] Research over the last fifty years has demonstrated the feasibility of restoring damaged arid lands, but many challenges, primarily socio-cultural, remain.^[lxvii]^,^[lxviii]^,^[lxix] Getting local communities engaged is critical.

The experts of ancient Nabatea have much to offer the World in inspiration and technique. Climate change and political instability makes action to restore lands and improve use of biofuels ever more important.^[lxx]

References

^[i]. “12 Countries Predominately Burning Solid Fuels For Energy.” World Atlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/12-countries-predominately-burning-solid-fuels-for-energy.html

^[ii]. Al-Mughrabi Nidal. “Gazans turns to firewood as energy prices soar.” Reuters. January 5, (2023). https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/gazans-turns-firewood-energy-prices-soar-2023-01-05/

^[iii]. Acevido, Nicole. “Outraged Puerto Rico residents express frustration over widespread power outages.” NBC News. June 13 (2024).

^[iv]. Veal, Robyn J. “Wood and Charcoal for Rome: Towards an Understanding of Ancient Regional Fuel Economics. In The Economic Integration of Italy: Rural Communities in a Globalizing World, edited by Tymon de Haas and Gijs Tol. Brill. (2017): 388-406. Veal, Robyn J. “Fuel Supplies for Pompeii. Pre-Roman and Roman Charcoals of the Casa delle Vestali.” In Charcoals from the Past: Cultural and Paleoenvironmental Implications, edited by G. Fiorentino and D. Magri. Oxford: Archaeopress BAR Series 1807. (2008): 287-297.

^[v] Taylor, Matthew J. 2017. Energy for the world’s kitchens: biomass for survival in the past, present, and future. pp.11-22. In: Solomon, B. and K. Calvert (eds). Handbook on the Geographies of Energy. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK.

^[vi] Bainbridge, David A. “Go Big! The Challenge of Large Scale Restoration of the Badiya.” EcoMENA July 18. (2024). https://www.ecomena.org/challenge-of-large-scale-restoration-of-badiya/

^[vii]. Lyons, Gerard J., Frank Lunny, and Hugh P. Pollock. “A Procedure for Estimating the Value of Forest Fuels.” Biomass 8, no. 4 (1985): 283-300.

^[viii]. Younker, Randall W. “Balanophagy and the Bedrock Industries of Ancient Jordan.” Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 5 (1995): 685-691.

^[ix]. Bainbridge, David A. Acorns as Food. Twain Harte, CA: Sierra Nature Prints, (2006) [1985]. https://works.bepress.com/david_a_bainbridge/17/

^[x]. Bahre, Conrad and Charles F. Hutchinson. 1985. The impact of historic fuelwood cutting on the semi-desert woodlands of Southeastern Arizona. Journal of Forest History. 29(4):175-186.

^[xi]. Bahre, Conrad. A Legacy of Change: Historic Human Impact on Vegetation in theArizona Badlands. University of Arizona Press. (1991). University of Arizona Press. p. 148

^[xii]. Standiford, Richard, Douglas McCreary, Sheila Barry, and Larry Forero. 2011. Blue oak stump sprouting evaluated after fuelwood harvest in northern Sacramento Valley. California Agricuture 65(3):148-154. https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.v065n03p148.

^[xiii]. Bahre, Conrad. A Legacy of Change. p. 152.

^[xiv]. For an example in the American Southwest, see Havard, V. “The Mezquit.” American Naturalist. 18, no. 5 (1884): 451-459.

^[xv]. Soga, Masashi, and Kevin J. Gaston. “Shifting Baseline Syndrome: Causes, Consequences, and Implications.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 16, no. 4 (2018): 222-230.

^[xvi]. Rollefson, Gary O., and Ilse Köhler-Rollefson. “Early Neolithic Exploitation Patterns in the Levant: Cultural Impact on the Environment.” Population and Environment 13, no. 4 (1992): 243-254.

^[xvii]. Marsh, George Perkins. Man and Nature: Or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action. University of Washington Press, (2003) [1884].

^[xviii]. Hattar, Mussa. 2021. “Desert country Jordan aims for green with 10-million tree campaign.” PhysOrg. March 9. https://phys.org/news/2021-03-country-jordan-aims-green-million.html.

^[xix]. Engel, Thomas, and Wolfgang Frey. “Fuel Resources for Copper Smelting in Antiquity in Selected Woodlands in the Edom Highlands to the Wadi Arabah/Jordan.” Flora 191, no. 1 (1996): 29-39.

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^[xxii]. García Martín, J. F., M. Cuevas, C.-H. Feng, P. Álvarez Mateos, M. Torres García, and S. Sánchez. 2020. “Energetic valorisation of olive biomass: olive-tree pruning, olive stones and pomaces.” Processes (MDPI). 8 no. 5 (2020). 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050511

^[xxiii]. Select Papyri, 1.18. Contract for labour in a vineyard and lease of a fruit garden.

http://www.attalus.org/docs/select1/p18.html

^[xxiv]. Xyrafis, Efstratios Guillaume, Gregory A. Gambetta, and Katerina Biniari. “A Comparative Study on Training Systems and Vine Density in Santorini Island: Physiological, Microclimate, Yield and Quality Attributes.” Oeno One 57, no. 3 (2023):141-152.

^[xxv]. Vagelis Gavalas, 2023, personal communication. Gavalas Winery, Megalochori, Santorini, Greece.

^[xxvi]. Stratos Xyrafis, personal communication.

^[xxvii]. Otero, Iago, Martí Boada, and J. David Tàbara. “Social–Ecological Heritage and the Conservation of Mediterranean Landscapes under Global Change. A Case Study in Olzinelles (Catalonia).” Land Use Policy 30 (2013): 25-37.

^[xxviii]. Alves, Célia A., Margarita Evtyugina, Mário Cerqueira, Teresa Nunes, Márcio Duarte, and Estela Vicente. “Volatile Organic Compounds Emitted by the Stacks of Restaurants.” Air Quality Atmosphere & Health 8 (2015): 401-412.

^[xxix]. ‘Amr, Khairieh. “Wadi Musa in der Antike.” In Petra. Wunder in der Wüste, edited by Antikenmuseum and Sammlung Ludwig, 142-147. Berlin: Schwabe Verlag, (2012)

^[xxx]. It is not always easy to tell a wine press from an oil press site.

^[xxxi]. Knodell, Alex R., Susan E. Alcock, Christopher A. Tuttle, Christian F. Cloke, Tali Erickson-Gini, Cecelia Feldman, Gary O. Rollefson, Micaela Sinibaldi, Thomas M. Urban, and Clive Vella. “The Brown University Petra Archaeological Project: Landscape Archaeology in the Northern Hinterland of Petra, Jordan.” American Journal of Archaeology 121, no. 4 (2017): 621-683.

^[xxxii]. Bouchaud, C., Christiane Jacquat, and Danièle Martinoli. “Landscape Use and Fruit Cultivation in Petra (Jordan) from Early Nabataean to Byzantine Times (2nd Century BC – 5th Century AD).” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 26 (2017): 223-244.

^[xxxiii]. Barazani, Oz, Arnon Dag and Zachary Dunseth. “The History of Olive Cultivation in the Southern Levant.” Frontiers in Plant Science 14 (2023): 1131557.

^[xxxiv]. Rojas-Sola, José Ignacio, and Carlos Ramírez-Arrazola. “Engineering Graphics Applied to the Study of Old Methods of Olive Oil Production.” Scientific Research and Essays 6, no. 11 (2011): 2379-2388

^[xxxv]. Wikipedia, s.v. “Energy Content of Biofuel.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#:~:text=The%20energy%20content%20in%20the,%2C%20sugarcane%2C%20or%20sweet%20sorghum.

^[xxxvi]. Vossen, Paul. “Olive Oil: History, Production, and Characteristics of the World’s Classic Oils.” HortScience 42 no. 5 (2007) 1093-1100.

^[xxxvii]. Khdair, Adnan, and Ghaida Abu-Rumman. “Sustainable Environmental Management and Valorization Options for Olive Mill Byproducts in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region.” Processes 8, no. 6 (2020): 671.

^[xxxviii]. Rowan, Erica. “Olive Oil Pressing Waste as a Fuel Source in Antiquity.” American Journal of Archaeology 119, no. 4 (2015): 465-482.

^[xxxix]. Tawarah, Khalid M., and Rajaa A. Rababah. “Characterization of Some Jordanian Crude and Exhausted Olive Pomace Samples.” Green and Sustainable Chemistry 3 (2013): 146-162.

^[xl]. Martín, Juan Francisco García, Manuel Cuevas, Chao-Hui Feng, Paloma Álvarez Mateos, Miguel Torres García, and Sebastián Sánchez. “Energetic Valorisation of Olive Biomass: Olive-Tree Pruning, Olive Stones and Pomaces.” Processes 8, no. 5 (2020): 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050511/.

^[xli]. Mason, James R.B., and Khairieh ‘Amr. “Nabataean Bowl Production: Interim Summary of Developments.” Levant 25 (1993): 207. https://www.academia.edu/18928176/

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^[xliii]. Kropff, Antony. “An English Translation of the Edict on Maximum Prices, Also Known as the Price Edict of Diocletian.” Academia.edu, April 27, (2016).

^[xliv]. Erin Addison, personal communication.

^[xlv] Virginia Cooperative Extension. 2024. Charcoal making resources. https://ext.vt.edu/natural-resources/charcoal/charcoalmaking.html

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^[xlvii]. Studer, Jacqueline and Annegret Schneider. “Camel use in the Petra region, Jordan: 1st century BC to 4th century AD.” Persee/. MOM Éditions Année (2008) 49 pp. 581-596.

^[xlviii]. Kakar, Razique. “Camel’s Manure.” ArkBiodiv, February 2, (2016).

^[xlix]. Shanableh, Abdallah, Mohamed Abdallah, Adel Tayara, Chaouki Ghenai, Mohammed Kamil, Abrar Inayat, and Ahmad Shabib. “Experimental Characterization and Assessment of Bio- and Thermo-Chemical Energy Potential of Dromedary Manure.” Biomass and Bioenergy 148 (2021): 106058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106058/.

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^[lii]. Smith, A., L. Proctor, T.C. Hart, and G.J. Stein. “The Burning Issue of Dung in Archaeobotanical Samples: A Case Study Integrating Macro-Botanical Remains, Dung Spherulites, and Phytoliths to Assess Sample Origin and Fuel Use at Tell Zeidan, Syria.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 28 (2018).

^[liii]. Ali, N. “The Relationship Between Subsistence and Pottery Production Areas: An Ethnoarchaeological Study in Jordan.” Leiden Journal of Pottery Studies 21 (2005): 119-128.

^[liv]. Sidoroff, Maria-Louise. “Experimental Bonfirings of Pottery with Camel Dung Fuel, Jordan, July 2018.” EXARC 2019, no. 2 (2019). https://exarc.net/ark:/88735/10427/.

^[lv]. Bouchaud, C., Christiane Jacquat, and Danièle Martinoli. “Landscape Use and Fruit Cultivation in Petra (Jordan) from Early Nabataean to Byzantine Times (2nd Century BC – 5th Century AD).” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 26 (2017): 223-244.

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^[lxiv]. Bainbridge, David A. “Carbon Sequestration with Mesquite (Prosopis sp.) in an Agroforestry Setting.” Association for Temperate Agroforesty 26, no. 4 (2020).

^[lxv]. Myint, Moe, and Vanja Westerberg. “An Economic Valuation of a Large-Scale Rangeland Restoration Project through the Hima System in Jordan.” Report for the Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) Initiative by International Union for Conservation of Nature, Nairobi, Kenya, (2014).

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^[lxvii]. Bainbridge, David A. A Guide to Desert and Dryland Restoration. Island Press. (2007).

^[lxviii]. Abella. Scott. Restoring desert ecosystems. In Stuart K. Allison and Stephen D. Murphy. eds. Routledge Handbook of Ecological and Environmental Restoration. Routledge. (2017): 158-172.

^[lxix]. Bainbridge, David A. and John Tizler. “Recreating Mesquite Mounds (Nebkhas) in the Colorado Desert.” Restoration Notes 2, no. 1 (2014). https://works.bepress.com/david_a_bainbridge/36/.

^[lxx]. Cook-Patton, Susan C., C. Ronnie Drever, Bronson W. Griscom, Kelley Hamrick, Hamilton Hardman, Timm Kroeger, Pablo Pacheco, Shyla Raghav, Martha Stevenson, Chris Webb, Samantha Yeo, and Peter W. Ellis. “Protect, Manage and Then Restore Lands for Climate Mitigation. Nature Climate Change 11 (2021): 1027-1034.

Easy Guide to Become an Environmental Writer

By Salman Zafar | September 5, 2024 - 7:59 am |August 7, 2025 Careers, Environment

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Environment is becoming one of the main topics in the global media. How do you identify current issues concerning and how to choose the right words to convey information to your audience as correctly as possible?

There are many challenges the world is facing today. These are problems that need to be solved immediately. Pollution of the ozone layer, exhaustion of the freshwater supply, climate change and global warming, pollution of the world’s oceans, depletion of natural resources, destruction of flora and fauna — these are all topics that you, as a paper writer, can cover to get the world talking about them and taking action.

Where can I study to become an environmental writer?

You won’t find this kind of specialization at any institution. The first step to achieving your goal is to earn a bachelor’s degree. Environmental writers typically earn a bachelor’s degree in journalism, communications, English, or writing.

In parallel with their university studies, they additionally learn ecology and related sciences. They choose a vector at the beginning of their studies and follow it. Other environmental writers have earned a degree in ecology or related fields but have still studied writing. Classes in biology, chemistry, geography, earth science, and engineering are also useful for developing a deep understanding of environmental issues.

How to interest the public?

Writers often encounter such difficulty as a lack of interest from the audience. Not everyone is willing to read about ecology or watch TV programs about environmental protection, especially if it happens somewhere far away. How can you change this?

The reader needs to understand how the problem the writer describes affects them personally, how they can get sick if they breathe dirty air, and how water quality will affect their health and their children’s health. An emotional response is what generates real interest. So write about what is happening in your country, right under your nose, and relevant to everyone in your country.

It is important not just to describe the news but to present the situation more broadly. Keep in mind different contexts: religious, political, strategic, cultural, how it will affect water and food quality, flora and fauna. It is important to remember the international context as well.

How to prove the correlation?

The data that writers and scientists working in the environmental sector have to work with is often modeled. We don’t know exactly how it will or could be, but we model the situation based on all the information we currently know.

For example, we know that it takes upto 500 years for a plastic bag to decompose. But this data is modeled because, in fact, none of us have observed the same bag for a thousand years to draw that conclusion from personal experience.

Air is the “invisible killer.” Approximately two million people in the world die each year from heart disease worsened by polluted air. It can be as much about harmful emissions from factories and plants as it is about, for example, cutting down the forests that used to purify the air. But how do we prove this correlation if we know that ecology is a process?

You, as a writer, can use infographics. You need to take data on the number of hospital admissions for heart disease in a particular city A over a certain period, and the data on the number of businesses built and run, or – the number of green spaces cut down over the same period. Then try overlaying these graphs one on top of the other, and you can see how much one really correlates with the other.

Act, not react

The function of an environment writer is not to react but to act. Don’t wait until a disaster has already happened and react to it as an established fact. Act before then, before it’s too late. Write about the problem before it becomes a disaster or an accident. Talk about the conflict of interest, the violations that have been committed, and explain what it could all lead to. Perhaps, then you can avoid disaster and tragedy.

Where to find topics for materials

One option is a calendar of events from the UN. There you can find information about days like Earth Day, Water Day, and so on, and prepare your materials in advance. The UN also publishes its own statistics that you can use in your publications. Of course, you should also monitor news feeds and cooperate with scientists.

Where do I publish my papers?

It is always difficult for novice ecological writers to find a place to publish their first essays. For starters, you can start with campus newspapers and magazines to add to your portfolio. You can get a job at some newspaper or magazine, or you can try your hand at working remotely by publishing your articles on a variety of websites devoted to the topic. Don’t forget to use a reliable AI content detection tool to check the credibility of your article.

Check out Jooble if you desire to find a job. There are many vacancies for writers, particularly for environmental ones. The main thing is not to be afraid to press the “submit” button and not to get upset if you get rejected.

Why Eco-Friendly Cars Are Important?

By Salman Zafar | September 4, 2024 - 3:35 am |September 11, 2025 Automobiles, Health, Pollution Abatement

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The transport sector is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions for many countries. The biggest reason why is because of the conventional car, as vehicles account for over half of the emissions from the transportation sector. Your typical car emits carbon dioxide and many other harmful chemicals that are hurting the environment and human health. This makes driving the right vehicle more important than ever.

Driving an eco-friendly vehicle is a great way to help human health and the environment. A green vehicle releases less harmful chemicals into the air, as it emits low carbon compounds when running. Find out the different reasons why eco-friendly cars are so important, and how they can help prevent more damage to the environment.

Impact of Pollution on the Environment

Car pollution is one of the major causes of global warming. The greenhouse gases and carbon dioxide that cars emit end up trapped in the atmosphere. This has caused temperatures and sea levels worldwide to increase over the years. As car pollution continues to effect global warming, you can also expect storms, floods and droughts to be more severe.

The rise in temperature has caused ice caps and glaciers to melt. This has not only caused sea levels to rise, but also warmer temperatures. It will have an impact on hurricanes as well, as storms increase in strength due to warmer ocean surface temperatures.

The chemicals that vehicles emit also affect the air, soil and water quality. The different chemicals have weakened the ozone layer and caused acid rain. Furthermore, the weakening of the ozone layer exposes the earth to harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Providing further damage is acid rain, which adversely affects crops, forests and all aquatic environments. It releases aluminum in the soil and makes the water in aquatic environments acidic.

How Pollution is Hurting the MENA Region

Look at the MENA region if you want an example of how vehicular pollution is affecting the environment. They have experienced more severe heat waves, longer droughts and more dust storms than ever before. The Middle East and North Africa have also experienced longer and drier seasons. This makes it tougher for farmers to grow crops.

Arab region is among the worst performers in air quality

If conventional cars continue to be the most common source of transportation for humans, the environment will only get worst. The Middle East and North Africa region will only get hotter and drier. Such circumstances may eventually not allow farmers to grow any crops, which means a lot more people will be without work. The area may also become too hot and humid for anyone to live in. It is one of the hottest regions in the world, and temperatures will only continue to rise at this rate.

Pollution and Human Health

The different substances vehicles release in the air not only affect the environment, but also your health. Carbon monoxide and other chemicals that your typical car emits can harm you. The chemicals affect the quality of the air you breathe.

Not having the quality of air that you are supposed to breathe in causes damage to your respiratory system, especially if you suffer from asthma. These gases can also be cancerous. There are numerous cancers caused by outdoor air pollution, and vehicles play a large part in this situation.

Benefits of Eco-Friendly Vehicles

With global warming and health concerns on the rise because of the chemicals cars produce, it is important to buy the right vehicle and sell your clunker. Purchasing an eco-friendly car is the way to go. They are a lot more affordable than they were in the past, and this investment is a way to help your health and the world you live in. Hybrid cars and electric vehicles are not widely available on car rental fleets yet, however you can check eco friendly car rental before you book to help you make an informed decision when renting a car.

Hybrids and electric vehicles are “eco-friendly” for a reason. Electric cars do not burn any fuel. They run solely on electricity, which means they don’t release any harmful chemicals into the air you breathe. Hybrids, on the other hand, are different from conventional cars and electric vehicles. Hybrid cars possess an electric motor and an internal combustion engine, which is what a conventional vehicle runs on. The fact that hybrids possess two engines and rely on electricity more often means that they burn less fuel than your average car.

In any case, whether you obtain an electric car or a hybrid, you still need to apply for car registration before you can drive it legally. So be sure to complete the necessary DMV procedures directly after making your purchase.

Why Plastic Water Bottles are Bad for the Environment

By Rehan Ahmad | September 4, 2024 - 3:29 am |March 13, 2026 Environment, Lifestyle

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Plastic water bottles are a common feature in urban life. The availability of water bottles is common and the cost is affordable by all sections of the society due to which its use and misuse has increased manifolds with time. People also provide it for free in mosques and other public locations. It is because of its easy availability that people misuse this resource considering it free, taking a bottle, sipping it, consuming partly and leaving it at the venue or throwing it in garbage bins.

Empty and partially consumed plastic water bottles are collected and thrown away in municipal garbage bins from where it is collected and transported to municipal landfill site. These water bottles have a high carbon footprint and represent enormous wastage of precious water source and misuse of our other fragile resources. In many cases, these water bottles are littered around commercial and religious places.

Startling Facts about Plastic Water Bottles

Bottled water is widely used by people from all walks of life and is considered to be convenient and safer than tap water. A person on an average drinks around 2.0 liters of water a day and may consume 4-6 plastic bottles per day.

Infact, UAE has the world’s highest per capita consumption of bottled water of as much as 285 liters per year and a typical UAE resident uses around 450 plastic water bottles each year.

We need to understand the fact that plastic is made from petroleum. 24 million gallons of oil is needed to produce a billion plastic bottles. Plastic takes around 700 years to be degraded. 90% of the cost of bottled water is due to the bottle itself. 80% of plastic bottles produced are not recycled. Globally, plastic recycling rate is very low and major quantities of plastics are being disposed in the landfills, where they stay for hundreds of years not being naturally degraded.

Recycling one ton of plastic saves 5.74 m³ of landfill space and save cost of collection and transportation. Water bottles manufacturing, transportation, distribution and again collection and disposal after its use create enormous pollution in terms of trash generation, global warming and air pollution.

The transportation of bottled water from its source to stores alone releases thousands of tons of carbon dioxide. In addition to the millions of gallons of water used in the plastic-making process, two gallons of water are wasted in the purification process for every gallon that goes into the plastic bottles.

The Way Forward

The solution to the menace of plastic water bottles lies in its minimum use and safe disposal. The first step is that once you open a water bottle, you need to completely consume it to fully utilize the resource. Do not throw away plastic bottles as litter.

Alternatively, a flask, thermos or reusable water bottle can be used which can be refilled as required. It is advisable that religious places, hotels, malls, restaurants, conference rooms etc. should have efficient water purification plants and water dispensers to reduce the use of plastic water bottles.

Waste Management Outlook for Qatar

By Surya Suresh | September 4, 2024 - 3:22 am |September 7, 2024 Middle East

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Qatar is counted among the world’s fastest growing economies as well as richest countries in the world. The rapid industrialization of the country and high population growth generates a lot of wastes in the form of municipal wastes, construction & demolition debris, industrial wastes etc. Annual solid waste generation in Qatar has crossed 2.5 million tons, which corresponds to daily waste generation of more than 7,000 tons per day. The country has one of the highest per capita waste generation worldwide which ranges from 1.6 to 1.8 kg per day.

Solid Waste Management Scenario

Solid waste is mainly comprised of organic materials while the rest of the waste is made up of recyclables like glass, paper, metals and plastics. Waste is collected from across the country and predominantly disposed off in landfills. There are three landfills in Qatar; Umm Al-Afai for bulky and domestic waste, Rawda Rashed for construction and demolition waste, and Al-Krana for sewage wastes. This method of waste disposal by landfill is not a practical solution for a country like Qatar where land availability is limited and only 8% of the waste is recycled.

One of the promising developments in solid waste management sector in recent years has been the creation of Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre (DSWMC) at Mesaieed. This centre is designed to maximize recovery of resources and energy from waste by installing state-of-the-art technologies for separation, pre-processing, mechanical and organic recycling, and waste-to-energy and composting technologies. It will treat 1550 tons of waste per day, and is expected to generate enough power for in-house requirements, and supply a surplus of 34.4 MW to the national grid.

Government Strategy

The Qatar Government has identified the need for better waste management and has made plans to address this issue in Qatar National Development Strategy 2011-2016. According to this plan the Government proposes to contain the levels of waste generated by households, commercial sites and industry and to recycle much more of the waste generated. Accordingly, the plan prioritizes actions to reduce the pressure on the environment, with the most preferable goal being the avoidance of waste. Where waste cannot be avoided, the preferred goals would be to reduce it, reuse it and recycle it, and the least desirable action is to dispose of materials.

The plan also proposes to initiate new policies to encourage firms to export recycled items and manufacturers to use recycled material. The Government is to consider providing subsidies to encourage more firms to enter the recycling business and public awareness campaigns to encourage waste separation. It also plans to improve collection networks and to provide recycling bins.

To generate new recycling activity sponsored demonstrations and public awareness activities are planned. Citizens will be made aware of the opportunity to use recycled products, such as furniture made from recycled wood or compost produced daily in Mesaieed. Citizens are to be encouraged to see waste reduction and recycling as a duty with the welfare of future generations in mind.

The critical step in establishing a solid waste management plan will be to coordinate responsibilities, activities and planning. The plan, to be aligned with the Qatar National Master Plan, will cover households, industry and commercial establishments, and construction and demolition. The plan will also provide classifications for different types of domestic and non- domestic waste, mapping their sources.

Future Perspectives

When the Qatar National Development Strategy 2011-2016 was conceived, the plant at Mesaieed might have been seen as an ideal solution, but by the time the project was completed the capacity of the plant to handle waste has been overwhelmed. The centre in Mesaieed can treat only 1550 tons of the 7000 tons generated everyday and this is only going to increase in future. Qatar needs a handful of such centers in order to tackle the growing menace of urban wastes.

While steps are being taken to handle waste generated in future, the Government needs to focus on creating mass awareness about 4Rs of waste management viz. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recovery. If this can be achieved then the public can be expected to play its part in helping to reduce the generation of waste and in recycling waste by making the process easier by segregating waste at the source. The public needs to be made aware of its responsibility and duty to the future generations. Since Qatar is predominantly a Muslim country, the government may also take help of Islamic scholars to motivate the population to reduce per capita waste generation.

Improvement in curbside collection mechanism and establishment of material recovery facilities and recycling centres may also encourage public participation in waste management initiatives. After a period of public education and demonstration, segregation-at-source needs to be implemented throughout the country. Legislation needs to be passed to ensure compliance, failure of which will attract a penalty with spot checks by the Government body entrusted with its implementation.

Biogas Potential in the Middle East

By Salman Zafar | September 4, 2024 - 3:08 am |September 7, 2024 Middle East, Waste Management

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Anaerobic digestion is the natural biological process which stabilizes organic waste in the absence of air and transforms it into biofertilizer and biogas. It is a reliable technology for the treatment of wet, organic waste. Organic waste from various sources is biochemically degraded in highly controlled, oxygen-free conditions circumstances resulting in the production of biogas which can be used to produce both electricity and heat.

Anaerobic digestion is particularly suited to wet organic material and is commonly used for treating animal manure, organic fraction of MSW, sewage and industrial effluents. Anaerobic digestion is a unique treatment solution for organic wastes as it can deliver positive benefits related to multiple issues, including renewable energy, water pollution, and air emissions. Anaerobic digestion of organic wastes is fast gaining popularity as a means to protect the environment and to recycle biodegradable materials efficiently.

Many industries produce liquid and solid wastes that are suitable for anaerobic digestion, such as food processing, pharmaceuticals, organic chemicals, paper manufacturing and tannery industries. Some of the wastes might be difficult to digest as a sole substrate, but they can be biochemically degraded in combination with manure or sewage sludge. The combined digestion of different wastes is called co-digestion.

Biogas Potential in the Middle East

There is a large untapped potential for biogas generation in the Middle East which is mainly contributed by municipal solid wastes, sewage, industrial wastes and farm wastes. MSW is the best feedstock because of high organic content in solid wastes in Middle Eastern countries. On an average, more than 50 percent of the municipal waste stream is constituted by biodegradable fraction.

Huge quantity of sewage sludge is produced on daily basis across the region which presents a serious problem due to its high treatment costs and risk to environment and human health. On an average, the rate of wastewater generation is 80-200 litres per person each day. The handling of sewage sludge is one of the most significant challenges for municipal authorities in the Middle East. Anaerobic digestion is among the best methods for management of municipal wastewater worldwide.

The Middle Eastern region has strong animal population. The livestock sector, in particular sheep, goats and camels, plays an important role in the national economy of the Middle East countries. Many millions of live ruminants are imported into the Middle Eastern countries each year from around the world. The most attractive method of converting animal wastes into useful form is anaerobic digestion which gives biogas that can be used as a fuel for internal combustion engines, to generate electricity from small gas turbines, burnt directly for cooking, or for space and water heating.

The food processing industry in Middle East produces a large number of organic residues and by-products that can be used as biomass energy sources. In recent decades, the fast-growing food and beverage processing industry has remarkably increased in importance in major countries of the Middle East. The mushrooming of hotels, restaurants, fast-food joints and cafeterias in the Middle East region has resulted in the generation of huge quantities of food wastes.

The relevance of biogas technology lies in the fact that it makes the best possible utilization of industrial organic waste as a renewable source of clean energy. Diversion of industrial waste from landfill sites and taking it to plants which can turn it into biogas and biofertilizer will ensure that it is treated in such a way that it becomes a useful product instead of a harmful one.

Environmental Legislations in Bahrain

By Rehan Ahmad | September 4, 2024 - 3:04 am |September 7, 2024 Environment, Middle East

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The Kingdom of Bahrain has been responding to the massive industrial and commercial development taking place in the country and understood that economic development and sound environmental management are complimentary aspects of the same agenda and without adequate environmental protection, development will be undermined. With this aim, the Legislative Decree-law No.21 of 1996 was enacted to establish the Environmental Affairs Agency under the Ministry of Housing, Municipalities and Environment in 1996.

The process of making and enforcing environmental legislation in Bahrain started when the Government formed the Environmental Protection Committee (EPC) in 1983 which was later upgraded to a full-fledged Environmental Affairs (EA) office. Based on the Legislative Decree No. 21 of 1996, two main directorates were formed namely The Directorate of Environmental Assessment and Planning & The Directorate of Environmental Control. The EA was later upgraded and at present is the Supreme Council for Environment (SCE) which is managing and monitoring of the environmental resources of the country headed by H.E. Dr. Mohamed Mubarek bin Daina, as Chief Executive.

Bahrain is committed to the cause of environmental protection and has thus decided to incorporate necessary environmental legislations to solve the problems of pollution and environmental degradation. In addition, Bahrain is a signatory of all major regional and international environmental Conventions, Treaties and Protocols. Since past decades, many environmental legislation have been made and enforced related to air, water, waste, chemicals, fisheries and occupational health.

As per the legislation, anybody seeking to establish a facility or industry in the country has to obtain a ‘No Objection’ permit from the SCE, satisfying the requirements of raw materials, products, by-products, generation of solid, liquid and hazardous waste, chemicals, resource usage (electricity, gas, fuel, water etc.). They are required to submit a statement showing that their project/ activity is not going to harm the occupational and public health and impact the fragile national environmental resources, such as wildlife.

The industrial establishments are regularly being visited by the environmental professionals and inspectors to check their compliance with the various environmental attributes. The non-compliance often leads to warnings and repeated offence leads to cancellation of the Commercial Registration License.

The SCE formulates rules, regulation, policies, standards and legislation for the control of any form of pollution, safety at industries, waste management and conservation of environmental resources.

The copy of all environmental legislations enforced in the Kingdom can be obtained from the SCE office. A hotline is also operative whereby, people can call regarding any environmental offence or violations or report any incident or accident that affects the environment. It is to be noted that legislations alone cannot preserve the environmental resources. Each individual has to participate and be aware of their environmental responsibility and to plan and act in a manner to avoid any pollution that may harm us and our future generations.

The Impact of Urban Heat Island Effect on Sustainability

By Sunanda Swain | September 4, 2024 - 2:53 am |September 16, 2024 Green Building, Sustainable Development

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Urban Heat Island (UHI) Effect arises due to absorption of incident radiation from the sun by built surfaces of tall buildings, roof, concrete structures and asphalt roads and then releasing it in the form of heat. The term “urban heat island” describes the built-up areas that are significantly hotter than the surrounding open, natural or rural areas.

It occurs on the surface and in the atmosphere. The built surfaces are made of high-percentage of non-reflective and water-resistant construction materials. These materials act as heat sinks that absorb the radiated heat and store it for long time.

The Urban Heat Island Phenomenon

Lack of sufficient wind, change in thermal properties of the surface materials and lack of evapotranspiration rate in urban areas cause the urban heat island effect. On the other hand, green, wooded and open spaces composed of vegetation and moisture trapping soil use large proportion of absorbed radiation and release them through evapotranspiration process. As evaporation causes cooling effect, the released water vapour contributes to cool the air in the vicinity.

On a hot summer day, the urban surfaces are exposed to high temperature of 50–90°F (27–50°C) hotter than the air, where as the temperature of the shades or green open areas surrounding the urban surfaces remain close to air temperature. These changes in temperature between two areas create an “island” of higher temperature in the urban landscape. Normally the temperature difference of higher than 10 degrees forms heat islands.

Impacts on Sustainability

The increase in temperature in cities due to urban health island effect can have detrimental impacts on three pillars of sustainability, i.e. environment, people and economy.

Some of the negative effects of urban heat islands include:

Increase in energy consumption – Increase in temperature leads to increase in demand for cooling, which subsequently puts pressure on electricity supply during the peak periods of demand.
Increase in emission of air pollutants and GHGs – As more electricity is needed to cool the surfaces, demand on energy supply leads to emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases from the power plants. Even use of ozone depleting refrigerants such as CFCs in the air-conditioning system cause depletion in stratospheric ozone layer. Elevated temperature also promotes the formation of ground-level ozone.
Demand on water – As the surface and air get hotter, people consume more water for both indoor and outdoor usage and it puts pressure on water supply.
Ecosystem – Hot surfaces transfer the absorbed heat to water features such as rivers, streams, ponds, lake etc. increase the surface water temperature and alerting the aquatic ecosystem structure and functions
Quality of life – Elevated day and night temperatures along with higher air pollution can cause respiratory diseases, discomfort, heat stress and decrease productivity and increase heat related mortalities.

UHI Effect in the UAE

Urban heat island is quite common in cities located in the temperate zone. However, a very few studies are done so far to find how cities in semiarid and arid areas act as urban heat islands. UAE consists of seven emirates and weather here is tropical desert climate. Out of seven emirates, Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Sharjah have experienced a rapid rise of high and low intensity urban areas in recent years.

Planting more trees and vegetation will go a long way in reducing the impact of urban heat islands

Dubai the most populated and developed emirate and a very few studies indicated that its urban climate is mostly affected by land use changes, vegetation cover, and expansion of built of areas. It was thought that cities in arid region have possibility to act as daily urban cool islands (UCI). However, there are not many studies done so far to establish this. Rather some studies indicated that Dubai has seen 64.8% change in land cover and a 1.5 degree C rise in land surface temperature (LST) in past 10 years. These are the common indicators of UHI.

How to Mitigate Urban Heat Island Effect

Studies have found that the mean daily temperature increase is consistent with increase in urban development. The composition of land cover features can significantly influence the magnitude of land surface temperature. Hence, increase in percent of vegetation is the most essential driver of reducing the land surface temperature and hence the UHI effect.

Therefore, proper management of green spaces is needed to mitigate the UHI effect in the urban cities of arid and semi arid countries. The heat island effect can be reduced by using following strategies.

Build small – Minimise building footprint and maximise open space
Minimize hardscape – Design driveways, roads, parking space and hardscape areas smartly by using permeable materials or surfaces such as vegetated roofs, porous pavement and grid pavers. Use open grid pavement system, which is at least 50% pervious and locating the parking space under the building will help reducing the urban heat island effect.
Use of reflective materials – Use high reflective materials with high solar reflective index (SRI) values for roofs and non-roof exterior surfaces. The SRI value is the combined value of reflectivity and emmitance.
Shading – Provide shading with existing tree canopy or new trees or with other structures. The surfaces can also be coved by solar panels that produce renewable energy. Shading with some architectural features of SRI of at least 29 will also help to reduce the heat island effect.
High albedo cool roof and green roofs: Combination of high albedo cool roofs (roofs with controlled SRI) and vegetated roof surface can reduce heat island effect significantly.

Conclusions

The composition of land cover features can significantly influence the magnitude of land surface temperature. Hence, increase in percent of vegetation is the most essential driver of reducing the land surface temperature and hence the urban heat island effect. Therefore, proper management of green space is needed to mitigate the UHI effect in the urban cities of arid and semi arid countries.

Qatar’s Fight Against Climate Change

By Neeshad Shafi | September 4, 2024 - 2:47 am |September 7, 2024 Climate Change, Middle East, Sustainable Development

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Qatar’s environmental records have always been in news, of course for the negative ones, but it has always strived to work towards reduction of GHGs emissions. Qatar is already doing plenty to help poor countries with financing and it seems unfair to focus on per capita emissions for a country with estimated population of 2.6 million making it the 143th most populous country on earth. (For climate talks, that is heresy). This may sound harsh, especially since Qatar’s contribution to global warming is tiny compared with the United States, China or India.

In recent years, Qatar is making itself a benchmark for all future sustainable and renewable initiatives in the Middle East. Qatar is committed to creating a cleaner and more energy efficient environment which is expected to make significant contributions in addressing climate change challenges and moving towards a more sustainable future.

However, these positive moves will not be enough to cover up the fact that Qatar, much as the other oil-producing countries in the Gulf, has still not made any commitment as part of the UN climate talks. Here’s more about climate change mitigation in Qatar:

Qatar’s Revamping Climate Plans

In line with Qatar National Vision 2030, Qatar aims to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels. Sustainable development has been identified as one of the top priorities in Qatar’s National Development Strategy. Environmental Development is one of the four main pillars of the Qatar National Vision 2030, which aims to manage rapid domestic expansion to ensure harmony between economic growth, social development, and environmental protection.

According to recent reports, Qatar is getting close to opening its long-delayed 200-megawatt solar tender. Qatar currently has a stated goal of installing 10 gigawatts (GW) of solar power capacity by 2030; the 200 MW solar tender represents just a portion of the installations expected over the coming years, but is still a noteworthy quantity. Qatar, as part of its environmental commitment and sustainable development, is turning to renewable sources of energy such as solar power, with initiatives already underway.

Qatar Foundation plays an instrumental role in Qatar’s sustainability efforts as it helps transform the country into a knowledge-based economy. It also endeavors to realize this vision by making sustainability an integral part of the day-to-day lives of local residents. By doing so, QF is working towards achieving its own strategic mission of unlocking human potential and promoting creativity and innovation.

Qatar Foundation, in partnership with the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), is setting up a pioneering Climate Change Research Institute and a Global Climate Change Forum as part of MoU signed on sidelines of COP 18 UNFCC Doha conference in 2012. The Institute, the first of its kind in the region, will seek to fill critical gaps in research on mitigation, adaptation and climate resiliency for key regions such as tropics, sub-tropics and dry lands. However, it is making a very slow pace due to various issues.

Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development is producing up to 85 percent of Qatar’s total solar energy as it announced the launch of one of the Gulf region’s first Energy Monitoring Centre (EMC) to manage its smart grid and monitor solar power generation across all sites within Education City. The EMC is part of the recently completed Solar Smart-Grid Project that added a total of 1.68MW of new solar photovoltaic (PV) systems at various facilities. The PV systems at QF now generate 5,180 MWh of clean energy annually, resulting in savings of around 2,590 tons of CO₂ emissions every year.

The Qatar Green Building Council, a QF member was established in 2009 to promote sustainable growth and development in Qatar through cost efficient and environment-friendly building practices. There has been rapid progress in green building sector in Qatar with the emergence of many world-class sustainable constructions in recent years. With the fifth-highest number of LEED-registered and certified buildings outside the U.S., Qatar has valuable experience and inputs to offer on the system’s local relevancy and application.

Qatar National Convention Center (QNCC) which hosted Doha UNFCCC climate conference COP 18/CMP8 was the first LEED certified project in Qatar and remains its largest rooftop solar system installed to date. Subsequently, Qatar Foundation continues to have the largest pipeline of all PV installations in the country, in addition to its pipeline of LEED-certified green buildings. With more than five megawatts of solar energy installations planned, Qatar Foundation’s clean efforts are one of the largest in the Gulf region.

QF is equally dedicated to sustainable infrastructural development. For instance, the student-housing complex at Education City is currently one of the only platinum LEED-certified student housing complexes in the world. Having earned 12 Platinum LEED certifications in the category of ‘New Construction’ from the US Green Building Council, it is also the largest collection of platinum LEED- certified buildings in one area in the world.

Qatar Solar Energy (QSE) has officially opened one of the largest vertically integrated PV module production facilities in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The 300 MW facility, located in the Doha industrial zone of Qatar, is the first significant development of the Qatar National Vision 2030, which aims to reduce the country’s reliance on fossil fuels in favor of more renewable energy sources. Qatar’s fledgling forays into the solar PV sector have gathered pace last year, when state-backed Qatar Solar Technologies (QSTec) acquired a 29% stake in SolarWorld in a move that raised eyebrows throughout the industry.

The Head of Qatar’s state-run electricity and water company (Kahramaa) has already announced ambitious plans to install solar panels atop the roofs of many of the country’s 85 reservoirs. With these latest plans are for creative solution to Qatar’s lack of viable land space (the country measures just 11,571km²), it is a must in a country with very little available land for large-scale solar plants. Qatar will adopt a scattered model, installing several small- to medium-sized PV installations.

Qatar’s National Food Security Programme (QNFSP) has been a driving force behind the nation’s thirst for renewable energy, creating an action plan designed to better utilize Qatar’s abundant solar radiation. Meanwhile, Qatar Solar Tech 70% owned by the Qatar Foundation has announced that it is scaling up its local manufacturing capabilities, and will build a 297 acre solar farm in the country’s Ras Laffan Industrial City.

As the host country for 2022 FIFA World Cup, Qatar has pledged solar-powered stadiums and the country is also working on a range of other solar projects gearing up to this football extravaganza.

Conclusions

Climate change and increase in temperatures is making Qatar even more vulnerable to the lack of water and food insecurity. Every single drop of water that is used in Qatar needs to be desalinated. Every single gram of food that is eaten needs to be either imported or grown with desalinated water. The plunging price of oil, coupled with advances in clean energy and resource conservation, offers Qatar a real chance to rationalize energy policy.

مشاريع المياه تعتبر من المشاريع المكلفة

Qatar can get rid of billions of dollars of distorting energy subsidies whilst shifting taxes towards carbon use. It is heartening to see that Qatar has recognized the importance of renewable energy and sustainability and its fight for reducing its ecological footprint. A cheaper, greener, sustainable and more reliable energy future for Qatar could be within reach.

القضايا البيئية الكبرى في منطقة شمال أفريقيا

By Sara Saguem | September 4, 2024 - 2:46 am |September 7, 2024 Climate Change, Environment, Pollution Abatement

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هي منطقة جغرافية تقع في أقصى الجزء الشمالي من قارة إفريقيا، و تمتد من مصر شرقا إلى المغرب غربا، إنها شمال أفريقيا. تضم المنطقة مجموعة من الدول وهي السودان، مصر، ليبيا، تونس، الجزائر، والمغرب. تقدر المساحة الإجمالية لمجموع هذه البلدان ب ٧١٩١٥١٢ كم مربع، كما يقدر عدد سكانها بما يناهز ٢٢١٧٦٣٠٢٦ مليون نسمة.

يحيط بمنطقة شمال أفريقيا العديد من المسطحات المائية، حيث يحدها شرقا البحر الأحمر وشمالا البحر الأبيض المتوسط، أما غربا فنجد المحيط الأطلسي والذي يعد ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة بعد المحيط الهادي حيث يغطي حوالي ٢٠% من مساحة الكرة الأرضية وتقريبا ٢٦% مساحة المياه الكلية للأرض. يسود هذه البلدان مناخ متوسطي، معتدل شتاء و حار صيفا، مما يساعد على انتشار الزراعة في المنطقة.

تتميز المنطقة بغنى تنوعها البيولوجي الذي يعتبر أساس وجود هذه المنطقة على كوكب الأرض، حيث تشمل بيئات ومنظومات طبيعيـة مختلفة، وأصناف نباتيـة وحيوانية نادرة وموارد جينية متنوعة.

تواجه بلدان شمال أفريقيا كباقي دول العالم العديد من التحديات، أهمها المشاكل البيئية التي تفاقمت في الآونة الأخيرة. فحسب استطلاعات الرأي التي قامت بها الجمعيات و المهتمين بهذا المجال في مختلف دول المنطقة، فإن المنطقة تعاني من مشاكل بيئية مشتركة تحول دون تحقيق أهدافها السامية في هذا المجال، مما يحد من تنفيذ إستراتيجياتها ويجعلها أسيرة شبح فقدان تنوعها البيولوجي الذي يعتبر إطار حياتها وعماد رخاء سكانها ومحور معيشتهم وثقافتهم وهويتهم، مما أدى إلى عظم الأثر السلبي على نمو المنطقة اقتصاديا واجتماعيا.

يعتبر تواجد المصانع بالقرب من المناطق السكنية من أهم المشاكل التي تعاني منها المنطقة، و ما يرافق ذلك من انبعاث الغازات والمخلفات السامة التي تلوث الهواء والماء على حد سواء ويتسبب في انتشار جلة من الأمراض والأوبئة التي تكون في بعض الأحيان قاتلة، كأمراض الجهاز التنفسي والذبحات الصدرية والقلبية وضعف المناعة. كما يؤدي رمي النفايات سواء من قبل السكان أو المنشآت الصناعية في المياه العذبة السطحية (كالوديان والبحيرات) أو الجوفية (كالآبار) إلى تلويث والقضاء على هذه الخزانات المائية البالغة الأهمية كمورد وحيد للشرب ولحياة الكائنات الحية المائية وجودة الزراعة.

ينتشر سلوك رمي النفايات في الشارع العام بشكل كبير بين سكان شمال أفريقيا، فتجمع النفايات يشوه المظهر العام للشارع، ويتسبب في انتشار الروائح الكريهة مما يؤدي إلى عواقب وخيمة على صحة وسلامة المواطن وأيضا يساهم في تدهور قطاع السياحة.

و مرد كل هذا إلى غياب فلسفة الاهتمام بالمجال البيئي، وعدم دمجه في البرامج والمناهج الدراسية، إضافة إلى غياب التخطيط المنهجي لتنفيذ برامج الحماية وانعدام الإرادة السياسية لردع المخالفين أفرادا كانوا أو مؤسسات صناعية، علاوة عن العلاقة المتوترة في أغلب الأحيان بين الجمعيات ومؤسسات الدولة, وعجز الجمعيات ومؤسسات المجتمع المدني عن إيجاد خطاب مناسب للتوعية وتعزيز الحس بأهمية المحافظة على الثروات الطبيعية كإرث معنوي وحضاري وغير متجدد.

إن لهذه المشاكل البيئية دور في خرق الحدود الجغرافية بين البلدان فهي لم تعد قضية محلية فقط، بل قضية إقليمية وعالمية، فالتلوث ينتقل من مكان لآخر وتأثيره لن يكون محصورا في منطقة واحدة من الكرة الأرضية عن غيرها من المناطق. فمشاكل شمال أفريقيا البيئية مثلا هي قضية مشتركة وعامة، فالمشاكل التي تشهدها المنطقة اليوم قد تسبب خللا عاما في التوازن البيئي. وبالتالي فإن أهمية الحفاظ على البيئة لم يعد ترفاُ فكرياً أو دعوة للتضامن بل أصبح ضرورة من ضروريات الحياة لأن الحفاظ على البيئة ليس مسؤولية الفرد لوحده ولا مسؤولية مجتمع بعينه أو دولة بحد ذاتها، فالحفاظ على البيئة هو عمل وجهد جماعي يجب أن يقوم به الجميع في كل الدول وفي جميع أنحاء العالم.

إن الحفاظ على البيئة يتطلب نشر توعية ترتبط باحترام البيئة وتبين مدى الحاجة إلى الحفاظ عليها، فاستمرار الإنسان وبقاؤه مرتبط أشد الارتباط بسلامة البيئة المحيطة به، ولذا، يجب وضع محدودية الموارد البيئية الطبيعية قدرة الأرض على تحمل الاستنزاف من ناحية والتلوث والتدهور من الناحية الأخرى في عين الاعتبار.

Solar Panel Maintenance: The Basics Every Homeowner Should Know

By Salman Zafar | September 4, 2024 - 2:40 am |September 6, 2024 Environment, Renewable Energy

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Nowadays, people are joining the wagon of sustainable practices. One of the most popular ones is using solar panels to provide renewable energy for the whole household. While purchasing solar panels can be expensive, they can be worth the investment in the long run because of the many benefits they bring.

One of these benefits is saving electricity bills since solar panels collect energy from the sun and store it for you to use in your home. However, to maximize your investment, you should know the basics to maintain the quality of your solar panels.

How Long Do Solar Panels Last?

Generally, solar panels can maintain 80% of their optimal capability for about 25 years. Solar panels that experience wear and tear usually don’t break down completely. Instead, they work at a decreased capacity. If, for instance, you have 300-watt solar panels, during the latter part of their 25-year mark, they’d still be able to produce 240 watts of output.

The problem, however, lies in the equipment you use in conjunction with the solar panels, like inverters and batteries. These pieces of material have a shorter life span and break down more easily. You can expect to replace solar inverters at least once or twice during the entire life span of your system. The good thing is inverters usually have a warrant for up to 10 or 20 years.

If you’re using batteries as well, expect additional costs as they’d need to be replaced often, depending on how you maintain them. For lead-acid batteries, replacement generally occurs every three to seven years. On the other hand, lithium batteries have at least 10-15 years of usable life span.

In addition, residential solar panel installations may also have an impact on your panels’ life span. But when done right, the panels won’t break easily. Similarly, low-quality installation may increase their chances of being easily damaged.

We recommend looking into informative and reputable local solar companies in your area with good warranties. For instance, SunPower by Custom Energy will guide you through the process and offers an industry-leading 25-year warranty to ensure you receive what you need.

How Do You Ensure Your Solar Panels Last Long?

Though solar panels need little maintenance for them to function, it’s vital to still look after them to ensure they last long. Here are ways to properly maintain your solar power system.

1. Make Regular Inspection Of Your Panels

More often than not, solar panels are located in higher areas, so they’re less susceptible to breakage caused by ground-level debris. But it’s still an excellent preventive method to check in on your solar panels every once in a while. Taking preventive maintenance like this ensures your panels are free from any buildup of dirt, tree materials, or pollen.

Another factor that could compromise your solar panels’ quality is extreme weather conditions, like hailstorms. Scheduled checkups can ensure your panels didn’t incur any damage after a storm or similar calamity.

2. Clean Your Solar Panels

Although cleaning solar panels can be a labor-intensive activity, it’s vital for their usability. Regularly cleaning your solar panels ensures there isn’t any object blocking them. If your panels are blocked, they may not be able to receive proper insulation. And without proper insulation, you won’t be able to maximize your panels’ energy output.

Scheduling a regular cleanup would depend on how much dirt or debris accumulates over a certain period of time. Thus, a routine inspection is necessary so you could check whether your panels need cleaning. If they do, make sure you use a soft rag or washcloth and mild biodegradable soap for cleaning. If dust buildup is your problem, you can run water through a hosepipe on them. This way, you’d avoid causing damage to the panels.

3. Make Sure Your Panels Are Under Well-Lit Areas

You can get your solar panels’ maximum capability if they’re properly installed. So ensure they’re placed directly under sunlight or the panels aren’t covered by shade. Remember, the energy produced by solar panels decreases significantly if there’s an obstruction between the panels and the sun. So if a tree is obstructing the sun, consider trimming it down if you can. Additionally, make sure to remove unnecessary objects near the panels.

4. Tighten Loose Parts

Just like any other equipment, solar panels come with small parts like bolts and joints, which may loosen over time. Try to check on these as often as you can to ensure optimal energy production at all times.

If you want to take the extra mile, consider using an energy production monitoring device. This would keep track of the energy produced by your panels. When you notice drastic differences in the energy produced, it may be a sign of faulty parts. Compromised components in the panels’ wiring may lead to accidents. Make sure to immediately check your panels out as faulty parts can cause electrocution or even fire.

5. Keep Track Of Your Panels’ Daily Performance

Another effective solar panel maintenance strategy you can follow is to record any critical information that you get. This may be the average energy production in a given amount of time or the daily amount of energy produced at a specific time of the day. If you’re keeping track of the data yourself, you might see discrepancies in the record.

For this, it might be best to get a manufacturer-approved monitoring system to get the most accurate results. With such a system, you can check whether your panels are working correctly and efficiently.

Conclusion

Installing solar panels may be one of the best ways to save on electricity costs. However, if you don’t know how to maintain them, they may not yield optimal results. Thus, considering the basics above can help you maximize your solar panel investment.

The Environmental Impact of Guitars

By Salman Zafar | September 4, 2024 - 2:29 am |September 4, 2024 Environment, Lifestyle, Youth

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Since the guitar was invented in the 16th Century, Spain, it has been enjoyed by people all around the globe – with an estimate of at least 900 million guitars existing today. Although, many musicians do worry about the carbon footprint that their instruments leave behind.

Guitars are made from rare woods and old growths. Over the years the manufacturing industry has had its fair share of issues, from illegal logging, scarcity in souring, and environmental regulations.

In this article, we are going to be speaking in more detail about the impact guitars have on the environment.

Do guitar factories produce a lot of emissions?

Globally, factories produce over 10 billion tons of CO2 each year and account for around 50% of the world’s pollution. While the guitar manufacturing companies only play a small role in these figures, they do of course play a role.

Nonetheless, as we become more environmentally aware, many guitar companies have taken action to equalize their carbon footprint. A prime example is the Music Wood Coalition, a Greenpeace initiative in the US that focuses on moving alternative certified wood sources, and filter out old growths and the deforesting of tropical woodlands. They have worked with huge brands such as Fender, Gibson, and Yamaha, aiming to use 80% alternative wood.

As for electric guitars, brands including Simon Lee have evolved into using recycled material such as CDs, or even old yogurt pots to create fusion into a dynamic polymer. So, whilst there are things we can do to prevent factory emissions, the main problem guitars pose to the environment is their use of rare wood and their participation in deforestation.

What guitar woods are endangered?

Deforestation amounts to ⅕ of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. Whilst many companies are planting new trees per product sale, the planting rate is still too slow. As stated above, guitars are generally made from rare woods such as ebony or alder, and around 40% of this is sourced illegally. The problem for major tonewoods is the decreasing availability of the highest quality specimen, which generally means the oldest.

Mahogany as a whole is not yet endangered, but when you look at the age of the trees, there has been a great effect. As the old growths have been preferably harvested, we are left with smaller and younger mahogany, which guitar builders regard with lesser worth. The specific Cuban mahogany, on the other hand, is officially endangered.

Other woods to join the endangered list include; Spanish cedar, Madagascar ebony, Brazilian rosewood, and Japanese oak. Some of the vulnerable woods include okoume, utile, Honduran mahogany, and walnut.

Where do guitar companies get their wood?

Most of the highest quality, top in line guitars are made in America or Japan, more alternative wood guitars are made in South Korea, China, Mexico, or Indonesia. These are meant for mass production sales.

The actual wood can be sourced from several other countries. Popular areas include Honduras, Belize, and India, then it is imported around the world. However, with the search to find more alternative wood, this has been changing in recent years. Nowadays, most guitars are made from spruce, which is not yet endangered. This is native to the Western states of North American, from Alaska to California. In addition, guitar makers have moved to using Jatoba as the fretboard wood of choice as other varieties have become less available.

Guitars consist of Northern wood and Southern wood. The Northern wood is used on the top of the guitar body, and the Southern wood is used for the side and back. The Northern wood is particularly important to help resonate sound.

Conclusion

The main environmental impact of guitars is the use of rare or old-growth woods. Guitar makers can be extremely fussy about the type of wood they use as it has a direct impact on the sound of the guitar. Nonetheless, with modern technology and knowledge, companies are coming up with ways to make eco guitars which are more environmentally friendly.

The plus side to guitars is that they generally have a long life span, and realistically, there is no need to replace your current guitar very often. A well-looked-after guitar can last up to 30 years, depending on quality. This should mean that the manufacturing demand can remain at a manageable rate.

Fuelwood

Shrub Wood and Pruning

Olive oil, Olive Pressing Waste (pomace, Jift)

Charcoal

Dung

Food for people

Fodder for Animals

Overview: How Nabatean energy demand was met

References

Where can I study to become an environmental writer?

How to interest the public?

How to prove the correlation?

Act, not react

Where to find topics for materials

Where do I publish my papers?

Impact of Pollution on the Environment

How Pollution is Hurting the MENA Region

Pollution and Human Health

Benefits of Eco-Friendly Vehicles

Startling Facts about Plastic Water Bottles

The Way Forward

Biogas Potential in the Middle East

The Urban Heat Island Phenomenon

Impacts on Sustainability

UHI Effect in the UAE

How to Mitigate Urban Heat Island Effect

Conclusions

Qatar’s Revamping Climate Plans

Conclusions

How Long Do Solar Panels Last?

How Do You Ensure Your Solar Panels Last Long?

1. Make Regular Inspection Of Your Panels

2. Clean Your Solar Panels

3. Make Sure Your Panels Are Under Well-Lit Areas

4. Tighten Loose Parts

5. Keep Track Of Your Panels’ Daily Performance

Conclusion

Do guitar factories produce a lot of emissions?

What guitar woods are endangered?

Where do guitar companies get their wood?

Conclusion

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